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CDEffilGHT DEPOSIT. 



THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 



"I believe that education is the fundamental method of 
social progress and reform. . . . 

"By law and punishment, by social agitation and discus- 
sion, society can regulate and form itself in a more or less 
haphazard or chance way. But through education society 
can formulate its own purposes, can organize its own means 
and resources, and thus shape itself with definiteness 
and economy in the direction in which it wishes to move." 
John Dewey, "My Pedagogic Creed." 



" Sociology demands of educators . . . thxit they shall not rate 
themselves as leaders of children, but as makers of society. 
Sociology knows no means for the amelioration or reform of 
society more radical than those of which teachers hold the 
leverage. The teacher who realizes his social function will 
not be satisfied with passing children to the next grade. 
He will read his success only in the record of men and women 
who go from the school eager to explore wider and deeper these 
social relations, and zealous to do their part in making a 
better future. We are the dupes of faulty analysis if we 
imaame that schools can do much to promote social progress 
until they are motived by this insight and this temper." 

Albion Small, "The Demands of Sociology upon 
Pedagogy." 



THE CHILD AID HIS SCHOOL 

An Interpretation of Elementary 
Education as a Social Process 



BY 

GERTRUDE HARTMAN 

FoEMERLT Director of the Merion Country Day SchooIj 
Merion, Pennsylvania 




NEW YORK 

E. P. BUTTON & COMPANY 

681 Fifth Avenue 



Copyright, 1922 
By E. P. BUTTON & COMPANY 



All rights reserved 



r-, 



v^ 



w-^- 



Printed in tht United States of Amtrica 

m '3 1922 

©GIA653743 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The author wishes to acknowledge with sincere appre- 
ciation the courtesy of the following publishers who have 
granted special permission for the incorporation in this 
study of the numerous extracts from publications for which 
they hold copyright. 

To the American Book Company for the quotation cited 
from Introduction to the Study of Society by Albion W. 
Small and George- E. Vincent. 

To Messrs. D. Appleton & Co., for the quotations cited 
from Beginnings of Art by E. Grosse, 

To the University of Chicago Press for the quotations 
cited from The School and Society, The Child and the Cur- 
riculum by John Dewey, from The Place of Industries in 
Elementary Education by Katharine E. Dopp and from 
The Scientific Method in Education by Ella Flagg Young. 

To the Columbia University Press for the quotations 
cited from The Economic Interpretation of History by 
Edwin R. A. Seligman. 

To Messrs. ,E. P. Button & Co., for the quotations cited 
from The Creative Impulse in Industry by Helen Marot. 

To Messrs. A. Flanagan Company for the quotations 
cited from My Pedagogic Creed by John Dewey and from 
The Demands of Sociology upon Pedagogy by Albion W. 
Small. 

To the editor of the Forum for the quotations cited from 
The Primary-Education Fetich by John Dewey. 

To Messrs. Ginn & Co. for the quotation cited from 
Sociology and Social Practice by Thomas N. Carver. 

To Messrs. Harper & Bros, for the quotations cited from 
Festivals and Plays by Percival Chubb and his Associates. 

To Messrs. D. C. Heath & Co. for the quotations cited 
from How We Think by John Dewey. 



vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

To Messrs. Hery Holt & Co. for the quotations cited from 
The Influences of Geographic Environment by Ellen C. 
Semple. 

To Messrs. Houghton Mifflin Co. for the quotations cited 
from the Eiverside Educational Monographs, Interest and 
Effort in Education and Moral Princples in Education by 
John Dewey and The Meaning of Infancy by John Fiske. 

To the Macmillan Company for the quotations cited from 
The Mind of Primitive Man by Franz Boas, from The 
American Commonwealth by Viscount James Bryce, from 
Democracy and Education by John Dewey, from the Cyclo- 
pcedia of Education, Paul Monroe, editor, and from The 
New History by J. Harvey Eobinson. 

To the Public School Publishing Co. for the quotations 
cited from The Fourth Yearbook of the National Herbart 
Society, The Social Function of United States History by 
John Bach McMaster and The Social Function of Geog- 
raphy by Spencer Trotter. 

To the W. B. Saunders Company for the quotation cited 
from Introduction to Neurology by C. Judson Herrick. 

To the Yale University Press for the quotation cited 
from Human Nature and its Remaking by William E. 
Hocking. 

Also to the Chicago Normal College Press, Publishers of 
the Educational Bi-monthly; to the George A. Doran Com- 
pany, Publishers of the Educational Review; to William 
Kice, Publisher of the London Journal of Education and 
School World, and to the editors of the Dial, the Kinder- 
garten Primary Magazine, the New Republic and School 
and Society for quotations cited from their several period- 
icals. 

Also to the Anthropological Society of Washington, the 
National Education Association, the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, and the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, 
for quotations cited from their publications. 



FOREWORD 

From among the many contributions that have enriched 
our professional literature during recent years, what se- 
lection shall be made by the teacher who seeks to translate 
the more modern philosophy of education into terms of 
daily school procedure and curriculum? What available 
sources adequately present the scientific background of that 
philosophy? Where shall we find interpretations of the 
scientific problems involved? What aids can the school 
library provide both for the teacher's use and for the chil- 
dren's reading? 

Miss Hartman has answered these questions by combin- 
ing a selection of library sources with an outline of the 
principles they illustrate, and a discussion of resulting im- 
plications for the school curriculum. 

We believe her study wiU be welcomed by teachers as 
a resume of exceptional value, discussing, as it does within 
a single volume, materials widely distributed through the 
pages of books and periodicals, many of them not easily 
available outside of special libraries. To the student and 
general reader we recommend it as presenting an able 
introduction to those precious conceptions of childhood 
and youth by which the word education is re-interpreted 
for those who hold it. 

Bureau of Educational Experiments. 

New York, November, 1921. 



vii 



PREFACE 

This study was originally undertaken as a bibliography 
in response to a request made of the Bureau of Educational 
Experiments by a group of teachers representing several 
schools, all of whom are conducting experimental work in 
curriculum-making. In the course of the undertaking, it 
soon became evident that a bibliography to be of funda- 
mental educational value must be governed by clearly de- 
fined principles of selection. The theory of the book is an 
attempt to organize in terms of the best authenticated 
knowledge, after careful study of a wide range of author- 
itative sources, a working hypothesis for experimental pro- 
cedure. Since a pedagogy of any scientific pretensions 
presupposes a basis of modern biology, psychology, and 
sociology, of which it is a derivative science, a background 
of the points of view in. those sciences, which have signi- 
ficance for education, is given in support of the educational 
philosophy advocated. Whenever significant points of view 
have lent themselves to direct quotation, the quotation has 
been incorporated with the text, since it conveys the idea 
in a far more vivid way than any digest could give. 

The predominance of references and quotations from the 
works of Dr. John Dewey is significant as indicating Dr. 
Dewey's profound service to the cause of modern educa- 
tion, in translating the findings of modern science and phi- 
losophy into their educational equivalents. The deep ob- 
ligation of the writer to the work of Dr. Dewey in this 
instance only reflects the indebtedness of an ever-growing 
body of workers in the educational field. 

It gives me pleasure to record here my indebtedness to 
the Bureau of Educational Experiments, who have made it 
possible for me to undertake the study. 

Gertrude Hartman. 
New York, November, 1921. 

ix 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction. ^Thb Present Educational Situation 1 

PART I. The Scientific Basis op Education 9 

The Biological Basis 9 

The Evolution op the Regulatory System 12 

The Psychological Basis 14 

The Significance op Childhood 19 

The Social Basis 23 

The Evolution of Occupations 25 

The Influence of Environment upon the Development 

op Social Life 30 

The Relation of Occupations to the Development op 

Social Life 32 

The Relation op Art and Science to Occupations 34 

The Evolution of the Scibntipic Method op Thinking. . 39 

The Evolution op Knowledge 41 

The Evolution op Organs op Social Regulation 45 

The Present Social Situation 48 

PART II. The Educative Process ." 55 

The Function op Education 55 

The Place op Activity in Education "" 60 

The Organization op Activities 67 

Activity as Play 68 

Dramatic Activities 73 

Investigation and Experimentation ,74 

Art Activities 77 

Rhythmic and Musical Activities 85 

The School Festival 87 

Linguistic Activities 91 

Composition 99 

Literature 101 



xii CONTENTS 

' PAGE 

Activity as Work 107 

Science 112 

The Tool Subjects 118 

Reading 122 

Writing 126 

Spelling 127 

Arithmetic 131 

The Organization op Subject-matter 134 

The Study op Social Life 137 

Community Study 139 

Our National Life 150 

The Study op Other Nations 155 

Social Philosophy 161 

Moral Education 163 

The Function op the Various Subjects op Study in 

Expanding Experience 167 

The Function op the Teacher 177 

Measuring Progress 182 

Equipment and Arrangements 185 

POSTSCRIPT. A Call to Teachers 189 

PART III. Bibliography op Sources por Subject-matter. . 191 

Community Study 192 

Food 192 

Clothing 196 

Shelter 199 

Transportation , 204 

Communication 206 

Conservation op Wealth 207 

Education 208 

Recreation 208 

Religion 209 

Protection 209 

Government 210 

Primitive Life 210 



CONTENTS xiii 

PAGE 

Our National Life 212 

GENEBAIi 212 

Government 213 

History 214 

The Study op Other Nations 221 

General 221 

North America 222 

South America 226 

Europe 227 

Asia 241 

Africa 246 

Australia 247 



k 



THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 



THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 



INTRODUCTION 

THE PRESENT EDUCATIONAL SITUATION 

Educationally speaking we seem to be "between two 
worlds, one dead, the other powerless to be born," There 
are numerous signs indicating that the old educational 
order is passing; there are vital tendencies everywhere 
showing the newer trend of the times ; but as yet there is 
no new education in definite existence ; even our most pro- 
gressive schools can be looked upon only as a transition 
and a compromise. Current educational practice is still 
dominated by psychological assumptions which the new 
developments of psychology have shown to be untenable, 
and by sociological implications which are survivals from 
a social situation no longer existing. 

The gap between school practice and the modern point 
of view in psychology is painfully apparent. The old 
psychology looked upon mind and the subject matter of 
thought as two distinct entities more or less antagonistic 
to each other, which it was the business of education to 
reconcile. Knowledge was abstracted from the situation 
which made it useful and looked upon as an end in itself. 
The teaching of subjects, not in their relation to experi- 
ence, but according to a fixed order and classification, the 
following of logical methods of instruction, the belief in 
the doctrine of formal discipline — all find their explana- 
tion in this outworn psychological creed. ''The supposed 
externality of subject-matter is but the counterpart phase 
of the alleged internal isolation of mind. If mind means 



2 THE CHILD AND HIS, SCHOOL 

certain powers or faculties existing in themselves and 
needing only to be exercised by and upon presented subject- 
matter, the presented subject-matter must mean something 
complete in its ready-made and fixed separateness. Objects, 
facts, truths of geography, history, and science not being 
conceived as means and ends for the intelligent develop- 
ment of experience, are thought of just as stuff to be 
learned. Eeading, writing, figuring are mere external 
forms of skill to be mastered. Even the arts — drawing, sing- 
ing — are thought of as meaning so many ready-made things, 
pictures, songs, that are to be externally produced and 
reproduced. . . . Some means must be found to overcome 
the separation of mind and subject-matter; problems of 
methods in teaching are reduced to various ways of over- 
coming a gap which exists only because a radically wrong 
method had already been entered upon," (John Dewey, 
Interest and Effort in Education, p. 94,*) 

"Philosophers have debated concerning the nature and 
method of knowledge. It is hardly cynical to say that posi- 
tiveness of assertion on those points has been in proportion 
to the lack of any assured method of knowing in actual 
operation. The whole idea and scope of knowledge-getting 
in education has reflected the absence of such a method, so 
that learning has meant, upon the whole, piling up, wor- 
shiping, and holding fast to what is handed down from the 
past with the title of knowledge. But the actual practice 
of knowing has finally reached a point where learning 
means discovery, not memorizing traditions; where knowl- 
edge is actively constructed, not passively absorbed; and 
where men's beliefs must be openly recognized to be experi- 
mental in nature, involving hypothesis and testing through 
being set at work. Upon the side of subject-matter, the 
ideas of energy, process, growth, and evolutionary change 
have become supreme at the expense of the older notions 
of permanent substance, rigid fixity, and uniformity. The 
basic conceptions which form men's standards of inter- 
pretation and valuation have thus undergone radical altera- 

*By permission HougMon Mifflin Co. Copyright 1913 by John 
Dewey. 



INTRODUCTION 3 

tion." (John Dewey, P7iilosophy of Education, Cyelo- 
pasdia of Education, pp. 702-703.*) According to the old 
point of view mental structure tended to fall apart into 
various faculties working more or less independently; the 
new point of view is an analysis of the processes of adaptive 
behavior, showing how they came into existence as the result 
of certain needs of life, and how they work together to 
maintain human beings to meet the constantly changing 
conditions of their environment. 

The false psychological basis of education is paralleled 
by a lack of realization of its social requirements. Strong 
social forces have for a long time been silently at work, and 
as a result our social life has undergone a complete and 
radical transformation. In education, on the other hand, 
outworn points of view have been handed on from genera- 
tion to generation and thus perpetuated, we have become 
habituated to traditional modes of thinking — ^in a word, 
education has become institutionalized. The result is that 
it now bears no clear and direct relation to the needs and 
opportunities of contemporaiy life. ''If we go back a few 
centuries, we find a practical monopoly of learning. The 
term possession of learning is, indeed a happy one. Learn- 
ing was a class matter. This was a necessary result of 
social conditions. There was not in existence any means by 
which the multitude could possibly have access to intel- 
lectual resources. These were stored up and hidden away 
in manuscripts. Of these, there were at best only a few, 
and it required a long and toilsome preparation to be able 
to do anything with them. A high-priesthood of learning 
which guarded the treasury of truth and which doled it out 
to the masses under severe restrictions, was the inevitable 
expression of these conditions. But, as a direct result of the 
industrial revolution . . . this has been changed. Printing 
was invented ; it was made commercial . . . The result has 
been an intellectual revolution. Learning has been put into 
circulation. "While there still is, and probably always will 
be, a particular class having the special business of inquiry 
in hand, a distinctively learned class is henceforth out of 

*B7 permission The Maemillan Co. Copyright 1911. 



4 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

the question. It is an anachronism. . . . Our school 
methods, and to a very considerable extent our curriculum, 
are inherited from the period when learning and command 
of certain symbols, affording as they did, the only access to 
learning, were all-important. The ideals of this period are 
still largely in control, even where the outward methods and 
studies have been changed . . . our present education 
... is highly specialized, one-sided and narrow. It is 
an education dominated almost entirely by the mediaeval 
conception of learning. It is something which appeals for 
the most part simply to the intellectual aspect of our 
natures, our desire to learn, to accumulate information, and 
to get control of the symbols of learning; not to our im- 
pulses and tendencies to make, to do, to create, to produce, 
whether in the form of utility or art. . . . 

"'"While training for the profession of learning is 
regarded as the type of culture, or a liberal education, the 
training of a mechanic, a musician, a lawyer, a doctor, a 
farmer, a merchant, or a railroad manager is regarded as 
purely technical and professional. The result is that whi'ch 
we see about us everywhere — the division into 'cultured* 
people and 'workers' . . . ." John 'Dewey, The School and 
Society, pp. 22-25.*) Such an educational situation tends 
to accentuate all the undemocratic tendencies of our time 
by strengthening class distinctions. Education under these 
circumstances tends to fall apart into two types seeking 
specialized aims. The education of the leisure class takes 
on more or less the character of an accomplishment; it is 
removed from the realities of every-day life and is con- 
cerned with an unproductive expenditure of time. On the 
other hand we see growing up a narrow, barren conception 
of technological education, dominated by the demands of 
industry rather than by educational principles, seeking to 
habituate workers in the various specialized modes of skill 
necessary for the efficient performance of their trades. 
Dissatisfaction is shown by the mass of the people to the 
making of a type of education a badge of inferiority, and 

*By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1900 by 
the University of Chicago. Copyright 1900 and 1915 by John Dewey. 



INTRODUCTION 5 

they therefore make every effort to secure the leisure-class 
education regardless of its serviceability. 

The pressing demand of the present is for the reestablish- 
ment of human relationships upon a saner and more secure 
foundation. It constitutes a challenge which the school 
cannot evade. If democracy is to be anything more than 
a mere political term, there must be a new educational 
theory which will relate education directly to the changed 
conditions brought about by the industrial revolution. The 
social aim of education for democracy must he of the sort 
which does not admit the implication of a class superiority. 
It will ie vocational, hut it will aim not -at a living hut a 
living together; it will he liheral, hecause it makes men 
free. *'We need to know the difference that the democratic 
ideal makes in our moral aims and methods; we need to 
come to consciousness of the changed conception of the 
nature of existence that its spread imports. We must 
reckon intelligently with the new and gigantic industrial 
forces that have come into being, securing by education a 
disposition to subordinate them to general welfare and to 
equality of opportunity so that they may not plunge us into 
class hatreds, intellectual deadness, and artistic vulgarity. 
Unless our science is to become as specialized and isolated 
a thing as was ever any scholastic scheme whose elaborate 
futility we ridicule, we must make the experimental atti- 
tude the pervasive ideal of all our intellectual undertakings, 
and learn to think habitually in terms of dynamic processes 
and genetic evolution. Clearness upon the issues, problems, 
and aims which our own period has brought to the fore- 
ground is a necessity for free and deliberate participation 
in the tasks that present-day education has to perform." 
(John Dewey, Philosophy of Education, Cyclopasdia of 
Education, p. 703.*) 

"What is needed is a thorough overhauling of our educa- 
tional beliefs, the rejection of everything that is outworn, 
and the formulation of a philosophy of curriculum organ- 
ization consistent with the findings of modern biology, 
psychology and sociology, upon which alone can a sound 

*By permission The Macmillan Co. Copyright 1911. 



6 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

philosophy of education be built. Unless we have such an 
organized philosophy we are without a standard by which 
to measure our day to day accomplishment, or to judge of 
the value of contemplated changes in procedure. Progress 
under any other conditions is due to a happy combination 
of external circumstances rather than to the application of 
scientific principles. 

EEADING 

Angell, J, R. — Tli6 'Province of Functional Psychology, 

Psychological Review, March, 1907. 
CooLEY, C. H. — A Primary Culture for Democracy, Papers 
and Proceedings, American Sociological Society, 1918. 
Dewey, John — Democracy and Education, Macmillan. 
Chap. XIX. Labor and Leisure. 
Chap. XX. Intellectual and Practical Studies. 
Chap. XXI. Physical and Social Studies. 
Chap. XXIII. Vocational Aspects of Education. 
Chap. XXIV. Philosophy of Education. 
Dewey, John — The Educational Situation, University of 

Chicago Press. 
Dewey, John — The Relation of Theory to Practice in 
Education, National Society for Scientific Study of 
Education, Year Book, 1904. 
Dewey, John — Schools of To-morrow, Dutton. 

Chap. IX. Industry and Educational Readjust- 
ment. 
Chap. XI. Democracy and Education. 
Dewey, John — The School and Society, University of 
Chicago Press. 

Chap. I. The School and Social Progress. 
Chap. IV. The Psychology of Elementary Edu- 
cation. 
Dewey, John — American Education and Culture, New 

Republic, July 1, 1916. 
Yeblen, T. — The Theory of the Leisure Class, Huebsch. 

Chap. XIV. The Higher Learning as an Expres- 
sion of the Pecuniary Culture. 



INTRODUCTION 7 

Watson, J. B. — Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It, 

Psychological Review, March, 1913. 
WooDWORTH, R. S. — Dynamic Psychology, Columbia Uni- 
versity Press. 

Chap. I. The Modem Movement in Psychology. 
Chap. II. The Problems and Methods of Psychol- 
ogy, 



PART I 

THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 

The human species appears to possess characteristics so 
essentially different from those of every other animal 
species that it is not surprising if for centuries man 
regarded himself as a separate and distinct creation. In- 
deed, although the work of Darwin established beyond 
doubt our biological connection with the rest of the animate 
world, it is only within recent years that the evolutionary 
conception of life has materially influenced psychological 
and sociological thought. The development of a functional 
psychology, of a dynamic sociology, and the pragmatic 
point of view in philosophy, however, are all making 
increasingly clear how completely our mental, our social, 
and our moral life are the result of that age-long experience 
which stretches back into the dim past when the first bit of 
protoplasm stirred in the primordial ooze and life began 
upon the earth. Since in the child, with whom the school 
has to deal, we have the latest product of that race experi- 
ence, it is necessary before attempting to formulate any 
mode of school procedure, to trace in a general way the 
workings of those great natural forces which have combined 
to make him what he is. What heritage have those forces 
bestowed upon him? What limitations do they impose 
upon education ? What resources do they offer ? These are 
the questions which education asks of evolution. 

The Biological Basis 

Wherever conditions on the earth are favorable, life 
exists, and the whole great concourse of living things, high 
as well as low, are forced to engage in a never-ending 

9 



lOv THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

struggle to maintain their existence. However rudimentary 
in structure an organism may be, it must perform all the 
functions necessary to sustain life or else be extinguished. 
As nourishment is fundamental to the continuance of life, 
all organisms perform ceaseless and untiring movements in 
search of food. The lower organisms usually move about 
at random, making trial of all sorts of conditions, until 
possibly by chance collision they meet success in their quest. 
Jennings in his Behavior of the Loiver Organisms describes 
bacteria as swimming about in a direction determined by 
the position of the body axis until the movement subjects 
them to unfavorable change; whereupon they reverse and 
swim in some other direction with rapid movements and 
much sensitiveness to unfavorable influences. This soon 
results in their finding and remaining in the favorable 
regions. We see, then, that a living being is not an inde- 
pendent thing existing in isolated passivity; the very con- 
ditions of its life force it into active relationship with the 
world of materials and forces upon which it depends for its 
sustenance. Life may be regarded as the sum total of the 
functions of an organism in their reciprocal relations, as the 
outcome of its relationship with the environment. Every 
organism reacts in ways that are advantageous to the 
functioning of its life processes. "If it gets into hot water, 
it takes measures to get out again, and the same .is true if it 
gets into excessively cold water. If it encounters an 
injurious chemical substance, it at once changes its behavior 
and escapes. If it lacks materials for its metabolic processes, 
it sets in operation movements which secure such material, 
suspending these movements when the lack is fully sup- 
plied. If it lacks oxygen for its respiration it moves to a 
region where oxygen is found. If injured, it flees to safer 
regions." (H. S. Jennings, The Method of Regulation in 
Behavior and in Other Fields. Journal of Experimental 
Zoology, November, 1905.) The continued existence of an 
organism depends upon harmony being preserved between 
changes in the environment and changes within the organ- 
ism. Anything injurious to the organism produces changes 
in behavior until a favorable condition is reached. In con- 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 11 

ditions that are entirely favorable there is no need for a 
change in behavior, A change in behavior takes place only 
when there is some interference with the life process. 

Out of this situation has developed that essential charac- 
teristic of all living beings — their power of adaptability. 
All living things in order to maintain themselves, are 
forced into processes of adaptive behavior, and variations 
within an organism arise in accordance with this require- 
ment. The variety and complexity of environmental con- 
ditions require subtle modifications within the organism to 
meet the exigencies of the diverse circumstances to which 
it is subjected. Organisms are able to make adaptive 
changes in behavior because of that characteristic common 
to all protoplasm known as plasticity. Lower forms of life 
have only a limited ability to adjust themselves to their 
surroundings. If changes in the environment are too sud- 
den or too great, the organism dies. The essential condi- 
tions of life therefore put a premium upon the better and 
better adaptation of the organism to its environment. This 
necessity for a more adequate adaptation of life to environ- 
ment has given rise to increasing elaboration of structure 
in the scale of animal life. Organisms that vary in such a 
way as to make them unfitted to carry on their life func- 
tions are eliminated ; those which improve their functioning 
through improved structure survive and produce others 
after their kind. 

The struggle of an organism for more adequate function- 
ing involves an effort to control its environment; elabora- 
tion of structure contributes to increased control of the 
environment by increasing the precision of movements ; on 
the other hand it tends to restrict the form of movement to 
certain types. An organism which has adopted some special 
type of behavior becomes unadapted to other behavior. It 
develops structures under the infiuence of its adaptive 
behavior that make it difficult for it to react in other than 
one way. After a time it loses all tendency to react in other 
ways owing to the structural changes it has undergone. 
Complete specialization of structure leads to a condition of 
stability in the relationship between the organism and its 



12 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

environment. The perfection of meclianism is unfavorable 
to further development. Animals become committed to one 
form of life and in so doing sacrifice their plasticity. 
Natural selection, therefore, while it favors variation of 
structure, also favors the persistence of plasticity, since 
plasticity is a prerequisite to growth. An organism to 
retain its plasticity must have the power of making 
over its environment in accordance with its own needs. 
The increasing control given by increasing elaboration 
of structure enables organisms to deal with an en- 
vironment which grows constantly more complex, more 
varied and more remote in time and space. A species which 
can adjust itself to only a few elements of its environment 
is less efficient than one which has diverse relationships and 
an extensive range of possible adaptations. The world of 
a protozoan is a drop of water; it can move but a short 
distance and distinguish but a few objects; the higher 
animals range over a wide territory and become acquainted 
with a great variety of objects; man lives in a world which 
is bounded by the most distant star, and which stretches 
back in time to ages before recorded history. 

The Evolution of the Regulatory System. — Eegulation 
signifies any kind of reaction of the organism which reestab- 
lishes the normal state of functioning. The securing of 
an effective method of regulation is therefore a matter of 
supreme importance to life. As we progress up the scale 
of life, we see that in the elaboration of structure function 
develops from a generalized to a specialized condition. The 
one-celled organism responds as a whole to stimulus. 
Gradually in the differentiation of structure we see that 
certain cells are set apart for receiving stimuli, and others 
for responding to them. There is then necessity for some 
sort of connection between these two sets of cells, and still 
other cells form a line of connection to transmit the 
stimulus from the receiving cells to the responding cells. 
Such, in general, is the mechanism constituting the rudi- 
mentary nervous system of lower animals. Once estab- 
lished, such a system dominates the organism since it forms 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 13 

an apparatus by which the inner processes are kept in har- 
mony and the whole organism the better equipped to make 
adaptive movements. From this simplest form of mechan- 
ism has been gradually evolved the elaborate structure of 
the nervous system with all its varied and highly special- 
ized functions. *'A study of the comparative anatomy of 
the nervous system shows that its form is always correlated 
with the behavior of the animal possessing it. The simplest 
form of nervous system consists of a diffuse network of 
nerve-cells and connecting fibres distributed among the other 
tissues of the body. Such a nervous system is found in 
some jelly-fishes and in parts of the sympathetic nervous 
system of higher animals. Animals which possess this dif- 
fuse type of nervous system can perform only very simple 
acts, chiefly total movements of the whole body or general 
movements of large parts of it, with relatively small 
capacity for refined activities requiring the cooperation of 
many different organs. But even the lowest animals which 
possess nerves show a tendency for the nervous net to be 
condensed in some regions for the general control of the 
activities of the different parts of the body." (C. J. 
Herriek, Introduction to Neurology, pp. 28-29.) 

By the possession of a highly organized nervous system 
a multitude of activities may be made to work together in 
unity for the welfare of the whole organism. In the lower 
animals there is only one course which the stimulus can 
take; as the neural processes become more complex, the 
path from stimulus to response is increasingly roundabout. 
If the stimulus can go by only one route the organism can 
never learn to discriminate between the response it is able 
to make and some other possible response. A highly devel- 
oped adjusting mechanism enables the organism to select 
its present stimulus with reference to past experience and 
thus provide more adequately for the future. 

The supreme place in nature attained by man is due to 
the progressive evolution of the nervous system. In purely 
physical respects the human body is inferior to that of other 
animals. It is not through superior physique but through 
ability to direct the activities of the body that man excels 



14 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

in the struggle for existence. This infinitely elaborated 
control system enables the human organism not only to 
respond appropriately to stimuli, but to order its behavior 
through an infinite series of responses, each determined by 
a preceding stimulus. From the biological point of view 
the human brain is the highest expression of an organizing 
system for the purpose of adaptation. The possession of a 
brain constitutes the greatest safeguard for success in the 
struggle for existence. 

EEADING 

Dewey, John. — Articles on Activity, Adaptation, Adjust- 
ment, Environment, and Organism. Cyclopaedia of 
Education. Macmillan. 

Jennings, H. S. — The Study of the Behaviour of Lower 
Organisms. Carnegie Institution. Pub. No. 16. The 
Method of Trial and Error in the Behavior of Lower 
Organisms. 

Jennings, H. S. — Modifiahility in Behavior. Journal of 
Experimental Zoology, November, 1905. 

Jennings, H. S. — The Method of Regulation in Behavior 
and in Other Fields. Journal of Experimental Zool- 
ogy, November, 1905. 

Millee, I. E. — The Psychology of Thinking. Macmillan. 
Chaps. I and II. The Biological Point of View. 

Morgan, C. L. — Animal Behaviour. Arnold, London. 
Chap. I. Organic Behaviour. 
Chap. VII. The Evolution of Animal Behaviour. 

Parker, C H. — The Origin and Evolution of the Nervous 
System. Popular Science Monthly, February, 1914. 

Smith, 0. E. — The Evolution of Man. Nature, September 
26, 1912, or Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 
1912. 

The Psychological Basis 

The life process is essentially a unit. To consider it under 
two categories, the biological and the psychological, is to 
run the risk of suggesting a separation where none exists. 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 15 

The physiological and the psychical are merely two aspects 
of the same thing separated here only for convenience in 
discussion. 

Just how the conscious processes came to be, remains part 
of the mystery of the origin of life itself. "Whatever their 
origin, the important fact is that they, like every other 
characteristic of living matter, developed out of the struggle 
for more effective functioning, and that each step in their 
elaboration has been regulated by the general evolutionary 
process of more complex and effective forms out of simpler 
and more general forms. From the evolutionary point of 
view consciousness is a superior device for securing adapta- 
tion ; it advances life more quickly, more economically, and 
more effectively than unconscious processes could do. The 
value of consciousness in the struggle for existence is self 
evident. An animal which reacted in a certain way to its 
environment and continued doing so, no matter how dis- 
astrous the results, would run the risk of annihilation. 
Therefore, any interference with the functioning of the 
life processes gives rise to changes in behavior in even the 
lowest organisms. This change in behavior is at first, for 
the most part, automatic, and highly subject to chance 
occurrence. Yet in the organism's choice of an environ- 
ment which furthers its life processes, and in indifference 
to, or rejection of, that which does not, we have the essence 
of consciousness. 

For an animal to be subject to the changes in its environ- 
ment is very precarious, and it is to its interest to gain 
control of its environment and thus render itself more 
secure. As we ascend the animal scale, therefore, we find 
that instincts are not rigid, but are capable of being modi- 
fied to suit varying circumstances. Inherited modes of 
action are modified by the experience of the organism. Even 
the lowest organisms do not always react in the same way 
to a given stimulus. The response may depend upon a num- 
ber of inner states or changes. As an animal profits by its 
past experience in adjusting its response to a present 
stimulus, we are justified in saying that it has undergone 
a conscious process, that its past experience is somehow 



16 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

brought into relation with its present situation and influ- 
ences behavior. In the higher animals a very simple 
stimulus may give rise to a very complex response. The 
higher the type of organism the greater the variety of 
responses which may be called forth, and the greater the 
power of inhibition, the balancing of one possible stimulus 
against another, and the choice of the most advantageous 
one. We see, therefore, as we ascend the animal scale a 
growing tendency toward the regulation of action for the 
achievement of more and more clearly realized ends. The 
more an animal is able to look ahead and, on the basis of 
past experience, to manipulate the elements of its environ- 
ment so that desired results are brought about, the more 
secure it is. The more an animal is able to predict different 
futures for itself and to choose the proper course of action, 
the greater its chance of survival. The only way that an 
organism can control its future is by modifying its present 
environment through its responses. Therefore, wherever 
we see conscious activity at work we find attempts being 
made to make over the environment for the more efficient 
performance of life functions. As we pass from lower to 
higher forms of life we see that animals participate in 
shaping the course of their actions, and that inherited 
modes of reaction are more and more modified by experi- 
ence. All of this means the growth of intelligence. 

Intelligence once having been established as a factor in 
evolution, it comes to assume a role of ever increasing im- 
portance. Competition between the intelligence of different 
animals in their struggle for existence gives it constant 
impetus. The animal with superior mental equipment has 
an immense advantage in being able to meet a situation in 
more than one way, and to deal with new situations in a 
complex and variable environment. As soon as intelligence 
has been developed so that a slight variation in it is more 
useful than a variation in physical structure, such variation 
will be selected, and physical superiority gives way to the 
development of intelligence. If we compare the highest 
animals with the lowest, we can see the tremendous develop- 
ment of effective forms of behavior due to the development 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 17 

of the conscious processes. With the evolution of man, 
physiological variation has ceased, but psychical variation 
has proceeded rapidly. 

The foregoing discussion of animal intelligence has 
seemed to put a high valuation upon the development of the 
animal mind. However, if we compare the highest animals 
with even the lowest tribes of men, we see the great gap 
which marks the dividing line between man and the brute 
creation. This need not lead us to suppose, however, that 
the human intellect is something different in kind from the 
animal mind. Though infinitely more complex, it may con- 
ceivably be looked upon as the last and most complex term 
in a series of evolutionary changes, to which reflex action, 
instinct, and intelligence directly lead. The special 
superiority of each animal species below man has been 
gained by surrendering the possibility of advance along 
other lines. The range of possible reactions to a given 
stimulus is limited, and repetition of reaction brings about 
a perfection of mechanism comparatively soon after birth, 
which precludes further development. Acquired ability 
therefore has its limitations in the animal world. 

The mind of man may be looked upon as a superior organ 
of control, designed to keep track of a great multiplicity of 
environmental factors, to balance them up with reference to 
activity, and thus act as an effective instrument in subor- 
dinating the environment to its own purposes. Thinking is 
not a single process : it represents rather an organization of 
processes working together to evaluate activity with ref- 
erence to a highly complex environment, and thus to select 
from a number of possible responses the response which will 
be most successful in controlling the environment not only 
in the present but in the future. The evolutionary point 
of view makes it clear that the various faculties such as 
sensation, memory, imagination, reasoning and the like, 
each of which was regarded by the older psychologists as 
distinct in itself, are simply various aspects of a vast com- 
plex of conscious processes working together to enable the 
human species to deal effectively with an infinitely complex: 
and varied environment. By means of the working together 



18 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

of this elaborate meelianism tlie human mind is able to 
select from the countless stimuli presented to it those which 
need attention for the advancement of the organism, to 
organize its various resources, and thus to respond in appro- 
priate and effective ways. Through sensations we receive 
reports indicating the condition of affairs with reference 
to which we have to act. In a complex situation the reports 
are diverse, and contain seemingly incompatible elements. 
The mind is thus confronted with a problem and the 
demands for its solution determine the nature of the con- 
scious processes employed. The mind is not merely an 
organ for receiving stimuli ; it is also a recording apparatus, 
storing up valuable impressions which may be recalled at a 
future time in association with others, for the solution of a 
problem. This characteristic of mind we call memory. 
Habit is a path of preferred conduction between stimulus 
and response due to the repetition of similar experiences. 
It quickens reaction, and by making part of the mental 
process automatic lessens fatigue, thus releasing conscious- 
ness for more important phases. Through imagination 
phases of experience not present to the senses can be real- 
ized, details of past experiences can be combined in new and, 
original ways, tentative ways of meeting a situation can be 
projected. Through the exercise of judgment the sugges- 
tions for meeting the situation can be evaluated, those 
irrelevant rejected, and those relevant selected. As a result 
of this complex process response follows in the form of 
action. 

It is by means of this marvelously complex organization 
of conscious processes that man has escaped from routine 
existence, that he is able to meet new situations with in- 
genious solutions, that experience is being constantly recon- 
structed and continuity in behavior established. Through 
it man has secured control of the earth and transformed it 
into a human world. 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 19 



READING 

Dewey, John. — Article on Stimulus und Response, Cyclo- 
paedia of Education, Macmillan. 
MiLLEE, I. E. — The Psychology of Thinking, Macmillan. 
Chap. III. Sensory-Motor Circuit. 
Chap. IV. The Significance and Function of 

Consciousness. 
Chap. V. Differentiation and Organization of 

Consciousness. 
Chap. VI. Organic Unity of Mental and Motor 

Life. 
Chap. VII. Typical Modes of Adjustment. 
Morgan, C. L. — Animal Behaviour, Arnold, London. 
Chap. 11. Consciousness. 
Chap. III. Instinctive Behaviour. 
Chap. IV. Intelligent Behaviour. 
Chap. VI. The Feelings and Emotions. 
Thomas, "W. I. — Source Book for Social Origins, Part II. 

University of Chicago Press. 
Thoendike, E. L. — Educational Psychology, Teachers Col- 
lege Publication. 

The Significance of Childhood. — The human infant is 
born more helpless than the young of any other animal 
and its time for coming to maturity is relatively 
very long. At first this might seem to be a dis- 
advantage in the struggle for existence. Modern scien- 
tists have shown, however, that it is, on the contrary, a 
powerful asset having great influence on human supremacy. 
All creatures are endowed at birth with innate capacities 
essential to the preservation of the species. The young of 
most animals inherit a fairly perfect instinctive mechanism 
which comes to maturity soon after birth. Although the 
perfection of this instinctive equipment makes for efficiency 
along the lines for which it was designated, the very per- 
fection of the mechanism precludes development beyond the 
limits prescribed. It does not permit of great variation of 



20 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

response. Man's nervous system, on tlie other hand, is more 
plastic than that of other animals. The human infant is bom 
with a very unspeeialized instinctive equipment ; it is little 
more than a bundle of original tendencies modifiable to al- 
most any degree. It has, however, strong and urgent im- 
pulses to action. This is a combination that makes for growth. 
With an original endowment that is general in character, and 
through the constant demands of specific situations, intelli- 
gence is developed rapidly and adaptations are made to new 
conditions, as these present themselves. Because the child 
starts out with few instinctive modes of behavior definitely 
determined in advance, his powers may be continually 
modified and organized through his own specific experiences 
into the kind of equipment best adapted to advancing his 
individual needs. 

In the human infant, then, we have the creature which 
though seemingly helpless, is really best adapted to develop- 
ing adequately for a highly complex environment. This 
point of view puts a high positive value upon childhood; 
it is a great powerful human resource to be guarded and 

conserved. John Fiske was the first to make clear the 

* 
significance of infancy in relation to human supremacy. 

In the Meaning of Infancy he says: ''What is the mean- 
ing of the fact that man is born into the world more helpless 
than any other creature, and needs for a much longer 
season than any other living thing the tender care and 
counsel of his elders? It is one of the most familiar of 
facts that man, alone among animals, exhibits a capacity for 
progress. That man is widely different from other animals 
in the length of his adolescence and the utter helplessness 
of his babyhood, is an equally familiar fact. . . . 

"Let us now take a long leap from the highest level of 
human intelligence to the mental life of a turtle or a codfish. 
In what does the mental life of such creatures consist ? It 
consists of a few simple acts mostly concerned with the 
securing of food and the avoiding of danger, and these few 
simple acts are repeated with unvarying monotony during 
the whole lifetime of these creatures. . . . Among slightly 
teachable mammals, however, there is one group more teach- 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 21 

able than the rest. Monkeys, with their greater power of 
handling things, have also more inquisitiveness and more 
capacity for sustained attention than any other mammals ; 
and the higher apes are fertile in varied resources. ... At 
some remote epoch of the past — ^we cannot say just when or 
how — our half-human forefathers reached and passed this 
critical point, and forthwith their varied struggles began 
age after age to result in the preservation of bigger and 
better brains, wliile the rest of their bodies changed but 
little. ... 

"But this steady increase of intelligence, as our fore- 
fathers began to become human, carried with it a steady 
prolongation of infancy. As mental life became more com- 
plex and various, as the things to be learned kept ever 
multiplying, less and less could be done before birth, more 
and more must be left to be done in the earlier years of 
life. So instead of being bom with a few simple capacities 
thoroughly organized, man came at last to be bom with the 
germs of many complex capacities which were reserved to 
be unfolded and enhanced or checked and stifled by the 
incidents of personal experience in each individual. . . . 
Here at last there had come upon the scene a creature 
endowed with the capacity for progress, and a new chapter 
was thus opened in the history of creation." (John Fiske, 
TJie Meaning of Infancy, pp. 1-13.*) 

A full realization of the far-reaching implications of 
childhood brings with it as a necessary complement an 
appreciation of the real meaning of play in the life of the 
child. Child's play is not to be regarded lightly; it is not 
a relaxation nor a diversion. Nature's purpose in implant- 
ing the play impulse is a serious one and the child, as any- 
one can see by watching, applies himself seriously to carry- 
ing it out. Karl Groos summed up the fundamental bio- 
logical significance of play in these words: "Children do 
not play because they are young; they are young in order 
that they may play." Play gives exercise to the deep- 

*By permission HougMon Mifflin Co. Copyright 1883 and 1889 
by John Fiske. Copyiight 1909 by Houghton Miffin Co. Copyright 
1911 by Abby M. Fiske. 



g2 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

seated motor instincts of the child. Under the powerful 
stimulus of the play impulse the child is driven to incessant 
action ; and thus develops in an experimental way his own 
methods of making adaptations to the infinitely varying 
conditions of his life. By this method the crude, general, 
original endowment of the child is, through endless adapta- 
tions, converted into a more specialized form more ade- 
quately suited to his particular needs. Impelled by his 
eager spontaneous curiosity about his surroundings, follow- 
ing the leadings of a broad and catholic interest in persons 
and things, the child is busy laying a wide and secure 
foundation of first-hand experiences for understanding all 
phases of his complex environment. He is absorbed in 
getting through an all round contact with persons and 
things that wide range of acquaintance with his physical 
and social environment which will serve as the foundation 
for the more specialized pursuits of later life. Play enables 
the child to realize his powers through putting them to a 
variety of uses. It is no doubt to this fact that the dis- 
tinguishing characteristics of the play impulse are due — 
interest in play for its own sake, with a corresponding dis- 
regard for the product ; the wide range of interest, and the 
quick shift of attention from one thing to the next; the 
incessant demands of curiosity ; the desire to handle things ; 
the interest in doing the same thing over and over again. 

EEADING 

Chamberlain, A. E. — The Child, a Study in Evolution. 
Scribner. 

Chap. I. The Meaning of The Helplessness of In- 
fancy. 
Chap. II. The Meaning of Youth and Play. 
Chap. IV. The Periods of Childhood. 
Dewey, John. — ^Articles on Infancy and Play. CyclopEedia 

of Education. Macmillan, 
FiSKE, John. — The Meaning of Infancy. Houghton. 
Groos, Karl. — The Play of Animals. Appleton. 
Grogs, Karl. — The Play of Man. Appleton. 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OP EDUCATION 2S 

Morgan, C. L. — Animal Behaviour. Arnold, London. 
Chap. IV, Section II. Play. 

The Social Basis 

The great distinguishing feature of human adaptation in 
contrast to that of the animal world is its social character. 
Sociological considerations have to do with the ways in 
which natural evolution has been modified in the life of 
man, and in particular with the modifications brought about 
about by group life. Life in society is not, of course, 
entirely confined to man. It is the rule rather than the 
exception in the animal world. Among the expedients into 
which the struggle for existence has forced animals, the 
most effective is that of living together in communities. 
The animals that can best avail themselves of the advan- 
tages of association multiply their individual forces and 
attain a safety that no isolated animal could ever achieve. 
The non-gregarious animals are therefore gradually out- 
numbered by those that are social. As we study animal 
life we perceive that although there is an immense amount 
of warfare among different species, there is a great deal of 
mutual support for defence among animals of the same 
species. This cooperation shows a great variety of forms 
ranging all the way from the mere gregariousness of ani- 
mals who temporarily associate themselves into herds and 
flocks the better to protect themselves against their enemies ; 
to the highly organized group life of such animals as the 
ants and bees, who form a highly interdependent and uni- 
fied community. The conditions of life tend to keep ani- 
mals of the same species together. Social life of a kind is 
therefore a direct outcome of the life process. 

There is a vast difference, however, between the social 
life of even the most advanced animals and that of the 
most primitive tribes of men. Among animals group life is 
developed only so far as it will satisfy animal needs; since 
their needs are strictly limited, group life is likewise limited 
and must always remain so. Social relationships among 
animals living in even a highly organized community are 



24 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

upon a strictly physiological basis. Division of labor often 
brings about changes in structure so that individuals are 
unable to exist away from the community of which they 
are part. Such a condition of affairs makes for a static 
community life ; social evolution under these circumstances 
is impossible. Human association, on the contrary, is 
psychical; it is the result of interstimulation and response 
on the part of relatively independent individual units. 
Man satisfies his elemental needs through effort, each satis- 
faction opens up new wants, and new conditions present 
new problems calling for new and original solutions. Thus 
are set up two indeterminate, interacting series of develop- 
ments ; on the one hand increasing wants, and on the other 
an ever increasing variety of natural resources. In his 
effort to satisfy his wants the advantages of association and 
cooperation soon became apparent to primitive man. Thus 
came into being a psychic interaction that might be called 
social in the real sense of the word. This psychic inter- 
stimulation was made possible by the possession of language 
by which the ideas of one person could be transmitted to 
another and more effective forms of cooperation continually 
[I evolved. When men thus united upon the earth, a new 

type of functional and structural changes was set in 
motion ; social evolution became possible. 

READING 

Ellwood, C. a. — An Introduction to Social Psychology, 
Appleton. 

Chap. II. Organic Evolution and Social Evolu- 

lution. 
Chap. III. Human Nature and Human Society. 
Chaps. IV. and V. The Nature of Social Unity. 
Chap. IX. Instinct and Intelligence in The Social 
Life. 
Ellwood, C. a. — Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects, 
Appleton. 

Chap. VII. The Origin of Society. 
GiDDENGS, F. H. — The Elements of Sociology, Macmillan. 
Chap. XX. The Early History of Society. 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 25 

Kropotkin, p. a. — Mutual Aid; A Factor of Evolution, 
Knopf. 

McGee, W. J. — TJie Relation of Institutions to Environ- 
ment. Report of Smithsonian Institution, 1895. 

Morgan, C. L. — Animal Behaviour, Arnold, London. 
Chap. V. Social Behaviour. 

Powell, J. W. — From Barbarism to Civilization, American 
Anthropologist, 1888. 



The Evolution of Occupations 

Man's existence, like that of the rest of the organic world, 
is dependent upon his own exertions. Animals are forced 
to get their food wherever they can find it, and to pass 
from one environment to another to obtain it. Primitive 
man was also a migrating animal, dependent upon what 
nature had to offer him for support, and obliged to wander 
to a new environment when he had exhausted the food 
supply of the previous one. Though early man was inferior 
to other animals in various physical respects, he possessed 
a type of psychical equipment which gave him an immediate 
advantage in the struggle for existence, and was the means 
by which he gained his supreme position in the organic 
world. "... I ask you ... go with me to that early day 
when the first being, worthy to be called man, stood upon this 
earth. How economical has been his endowment. There is 
no hair on his body to keep him warm, his jaws are the 
feeblest in the world, his arm is not equal to that of a 
gorilla, he cannot fly like the eagle, he cannot see into the 
night like the owl, even the hare is fleeter than he. He 
has no clothing, no shelter. He had no tools, no society or 
language or arts of pleasure, he had yet no theory of life 
and poorer conceptions of the life beyond. The road from 
that condition to our own lies next to the infinite. The one 
endowment that this creature possessed having in it the 
promise and potency of all future achievements, was the 
creative spark called invention." (0. T. Mason, Birth of 
Invention, Smithsonian Institution, 1892, p. 604.) 



26 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

The assumption of the erect attitude, and the consequent 
liberation of the hands for specialized movements, gave 
primitive man an immediate superiority over all other 
animals. It not only enabled him to hurl weapons while 
escaping from his enemies, but to break stones and other 
loose objects for definite purposes. Animals have only a 
limited power outside of their own bodies for strengthening 
themselves in the struggle for existence, but the free use of 
the hand has had a great reflex upon developing the brain 
of man, stimulating it to devise ever better methods of 
satisfying his expanding needs. He began supplement- 
ing the power of the body with simple tools; he learned 
to lengthen his arms by means of poles, to make 
rakes instead of using his hands, hooks instead of fingers, 
and so on, and gradually evolved for himself a wealth of 
extra organs from his environment. At first these were 
mere adaptations of materials half formed by nature — 
branches of trees, stones, bones of animals, shells, and so 
on. By these means man gradually learned to exploit his 
own environment instead of being forced from one place 
to another in search of food. Instead of seeking a cave 
or retiring to a more congenial climate, he learned to make 
his environment serve him. He built houses and warmed 
them, he dressed in the furs and skins of certain animals and 
domesticated others, he cultivated plants, and exercised his 
ingenuity in devising utensils for his home, and implements 
for the advancement of his domestic life. 

The fundamental difference between animal industry and 
that of man lies in the fact that animal industry is ruled 
by instinct and therefore does not progress from generation 
to generation, while human industry is governed by in- 
ventive genius and is therefore capable of indefinite 
improvement. The human possibility of transmitting ideas 
by means of language is also another powerful factor in 
the development of occupations. "The two outer traits in 
which the distinction between the minds of animal and of 
man finds expression are the existence of organized artic- 
ulate language in man, and the use of utensils of varied 
application. Both of these are common to the whole of 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OP EDUCATION 27 

mankind. No tribe has ever been found that does not 
possess a well organized language ; no community that does 
not know the use of instruments for breaking, cutting, or 
drilling, the use of fire and of weapons with which to defend 
themselves and to obtain the means of living. Although 
means of communication by sound exist in animals, and 
although even lower animals seem to have means of 
bringing about cooperation between different individuals, 
we do not know of any ease of true articulate language 
from which the student can extract abstract principles of 
classification of ideas. It may also be that higher apes 
employ now and then limbs of trees or stones for defence, 
but the use of complex utensils is not found in any repre- 
sentative of the animal series. Only in the case of habita- 
tions do we find an approach to more complex activities, 
which, however, remain absolutely stable in each species — 
as we say, instinctive — and bear the evidence of any indi- 
vidual freedom of use, which constitutes the primary char- 
acter of human inventions. The origin of the instinctive 
activities of animals which lead to the construction of com- 
plex mechanical devices is still a hidden secret; but the 
relation of the individual of the species to these activities 
differs from that of man to his inventions in the complete 
lack of freed,om of control." (F. Boas, The Mind of 
Primitive Man, pp. 96-97.*) 

Thus we see as one aspect of the evolution of industry a 
gradual elaboration of industrial processes and variation in 
tools from the mere adaptations of bones and stones made 
by primitive man, to the wonderful specimens of modern 
machinery, as a result of the inventions made by man, in an 
effort to satisfy his ever expanding needs. Occupations 
have progressed from the primitive arts of hunting and 
fishing to agriculture, mining and manufacturing. The 
resources of one region have been increased by bringing 
commodities from places where they are superabundant to 
places where they are needed. This development of occu- 
pations has taken place in a haphazard way in accordance 
with the predominating needs of the time. "Now the 

*By permission The Macmillan Co. Copyright 1911. 



^8 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

exploitation takes the form of discovering tlie species of 
plants that will respond most readily to man's care; again, 
it is a search for earth's hidden secrets; at one time it 
is an attempt to find the most favorable routes of travel or 
the most advantageous sites for trade; at another it is a 
search for the choicest soils which can be made subject to 
man's needs by the use of new instruments and the means 
of maintaining collective activity. It may be a search in the 
sky for the means of determining the approach of a new 
season or a means of guiding the traveler at sea ; perhaps it 
is a series of experiments with new materials in order to 
bring about desirable features accidentally revealed; and 
sometimes it is an attempt to discover different forms of 
motive power or the means of applying the same." (K. E. 
Dopp, The Place of Industries in Elementary Education, 
pp. 66-67.) 

In the early days every family was its own "butcher, 
baker, and candlestick maker." Every household had to 
meet all the economic requirements of its members with its 
own labor. Often a single individual carried on the whole 
round of activities from the search for the raw materials 
to the use of the finished product. This situation in which 
the whole burden of the processes from production to eon- 
sumption fell upon one person, was rich in opportunities 
for the exercise of inventive ingenuity. It demanded 
intelligence and versatility, and dexterity in execution. 
Moreover the connection between production and use was 
obvious, and the value of labor estimated accordingly. The 
whole set of processes from production to consumption 
received its impulse and direction from the needs of the 
consumers. Occupations, in short, had a highly functional 
character. The advantages of cooperation and the division 
of labor according to natural aptitudes soon, however, made 
themselves manifest, and combined action in hunting, 
fishing, and for defence early became the rule. "With the 
advance of social life in complexity, labor became more and 
more specialized. Each successive specialization, though it 
tended to weaken the pleasurable emotional reflex resulting 
from the close union of production and consumption, gave 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 29 

increased efficiency in production, and was therefore en- 
couraged. The progress of civilization with its consequent 
increasing complexity of the industrial processes is marked 
by a greater and greater distance between the producer and 
the consumer, and therefore by a greater disassociation of 
wholesome emotional reflexes from labor. The matter has 
been further complicated by the institution of slavery. In 
the days of slavery labor was compulsory. It became distaste- 
ful to the master class because of its association with an 
inferior class. It was irksome to the slave because the 
problem was external to his own interests and needs. He 
was no longer free to choose the conditions under which he 
worked. Labor which was originally a free expression of 
the whole of society became the forced expression of cer- 
tain members. Succeeding stages of culture have tended to 
perpetuate the distinction between classes, and in the course 
of time society has come to be sharply differentiated into two 
great social classes: a wealthy leisure class, who, though 
they may engage in a variety of pursuits, choose those 
which are non-industrial, and the ''lower" class, the indus- 
trial workers, who carry on the work of the world at the 
command of the wealthy. 

EEADING 

BtJCHER, C. — Industrial Evolution, Holt. 

Chap. I. Primitive Economic Conditions. 
Chap. II. The Economic Life of Primitive People. 
Dopp, K. E. — The Place of Industries in Education, Uni- 
versity of Chicago Press. 

Chap. II. Significance of Industrial Epochs, 
Herbertson, a. J. and F. D, — Man and His Work, Mac- 
millan. 

Chap. VIII. Agriculture. 
Chap. IX. Rise of the Arts. 
Chap. X. Else of Manufactures. 
Chap. XI, Trade and Transport. 
Mason, 0. T, — The Birth of Invention, Report of Smith- 
sonian Institution, 1892. 



so THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Powell^ J. "W. — Technology, or tJie Science of Industries, 

American Anthropologist, 1899. 
Thomas, W. I. — Source Book for Social Origins, University 
of Chicago Press. 

Part III. Invention and Technology. 
Veblen, T. — The Theory of the Leisure Class, Huebsch. 

Chap. I. Introductory. 

Chap. II. Pecuniary Emulation. 

Chap. III. Conspicuous Leisure. 

Chap. IV. Conspicuous Consumption. 

Chap. V. The Pecuniary Standard of Living. 

The Influence of Environment upon the Development of 

Social Life 

Man, like all organic life, is, as we have seen, dependent 
upon his environment for his means of subsistence. All 
material progress depends upon the interaction of man and 
his environment. ''Every clan, tribe, state or nation in- 
cludes two ideas, a people and its land, the first unthink- 
able without the other. ... A land is fully comprehended 
only when studied in the light of its influence upon its people 
and a people cannot be fully understood apart from the field 
of its activities. More than this, human activities are fully 
intelligible only in relation to the various geographic con- 
ditions which have stimulated them in different parts of the 
world. . . . the modern society or state has grown into 
every foot of its own soil, exploited its every geographic 
advantage, utilized its geographic location to enrich itself 
by international trade, and when possible, to absorb out- 
lying territories by means of colonies. The broader this 
geographic base, the richer, the more varied its resources, 
and the more favorable its climate to their exploitation, the 
more numerous and complex are the connections which the 
members of the social group can establish with it, and 
through it with each other ; or in other words, the greater 
may be its ultimate historical significance. (E. C. Semple, 
Influences of Geographic Environment, pp. 51-53.*) By 

*By permission Henry Holt & Co. Copyright 1911. 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OP EDUCATION 31 

virtue of his higher intelligence man alone among animals 
has the power to react upon his environment in a way to 
render it more beneficial to himself. Primitive man was 
very dependent upon his physical environment ; he was able 
to form only a few and intermittent relations with any one 
place, and was therefore forced to be a wanderer; Ms social 
organization was, as a consequence, weak and loosely held 
together. Environmental conditions have given direction 
to the economic instincts of man and thus have indirectly 
affected social life. Social life began in regions where raw 
materials abounded and where food and shelter could be 
obtained through a medium amount of exertion. By his 
inventive genius, expressed in his industrial development, 
however, man has steadily advanced from subjection to his 
physical environment to control of it. He has decided to 
what environment he wished to be subjected, and then 
deliberately sought to create such an environment. "The 
relation of geographical conditions to national growth 
changes, and with the upward progress of humanity the 
ways in which Nature moulds the fortunes of man are 
always varying. Man must in every stage be for many 
purposes dependent upon the circumstances of his physical 
environment. Yet the character of that dependence changes 
with his advance in civilization. At first he is helpless, and, 
therefore passive. With what nature gives in the way of 
food, clothing, and lodging he must be content. She is 
strong, he is weak; so she dictates his whole mode of life. 
Presently, always by slow degrees, but most quickly in those 
countries where she neither gives lavishly nor yet presses 
on him with a discouraging severity, he begins to learn how 
to make her obey him, drawing from her stores materials 
which his skill handles in such wise as to make him more 
and more independent of her. He defies the rigors of 
climate ; he overcomes the obstacles which mountains, rivers, 
and forests place in the way of communications; he dis- 
covers the secrets of the physical forces and makes them his 
servants in the work of production. But the very multi- 
plication of the means at his disposal for profiting by what 
Nature supplies brings him into ever closer and more com- 



32 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

plex relations with her. The variety of her resources, dif- 
fering in different regions, prescribes the kind of industry 
for which each spot is fitted; . . . Thus certain physical 
conditions, whether of soil or of climate, of accessibility| 
or inaccessibility, or perhaps of such available natural 
forces as water power, conditions of supreme importance in 
the earlier stages of man's progress, are now of less relative 
moment, while others, formerly of small account, have 
received their full significance by our swiftly advancing 
knowledge of the secrets of Nature and mastery of her 
forces. (J. Bryce, The American Commonwealth, Vol. 2, 
p. 450.*) Although physical environment influences social 
life, it does not determine human development. Every 
invention that is made alters in some degree the existing 
social environment; with every step of human progress, 
economic and social forces come to play a more and more 
important part. 

READING 

GOODE, J. p. — TJie Human Response to the Physical En- 
vironment, Journal of Geography, September, 1904, 
Herbertson, a. J, and F. D. — Man and His Work, Mac- 
millan. 

Introduction and first six chapters, 
Semple, E, C. — Influences of Geographic Environment, 

Holt, 
Thomas, W, I, — Source Book for Social Origins, University 
of Chicago Press, 

Part I. The Relation of Society to Geographic and 
Economic Environment. 

The Relation of Occupations to the Development of Social 

Life 

The foregoing discussion has indicated the relationship 
between occupations and the development of civilization. 
Industry of one kind or another has been a dominant force 

*By permission The Maemillan Co. Copyright 1893 by Macmillan 
& Co. Copyright 1910, 1914 by The Maemillan Co. 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 33 

in tlie upbuilding and maintaining of social structures. 
"The activities of life are of necessity directed to bringing 
the materials and forces of nature under the control of our 
purposes; of making them tributary to ends of life. Men 
have had to work in order to live. In and through their 
work they have mastered nature, they have protected and 
enriched the conditions of their own life, they have been 
awakened to the sense of their own powers — they have been 
led to invent, to plan, and to rejoice in the acquisition of 
skill. In a rough way, all occupations may be classified as 
gathering about man's fundamental relations to the world 
in which he lives, through getting food to maintain life; 
securing clothing and shelter to protect and ornament it, 
and thus, finally, to provide a permanent home in which 
all the higher and more spiritual interests may center.'* 
(John Dewey, TJie School and Society, pp. 135-136.) Eco- 
nomic facts are thus seen to constitute the sub-structure of 
society which conditions its very existence. Economic con- 
ditions have always controlled social conditions. So long 
as man could satisfy his needs without the help of his fel- 
lows, isolated production was the rule ; but as the economic 
struggle became more severe utilitarian motives led to co- 
operation. Economic necessity thus determined the original 
forms of social life out of which higher forms were grad- 
ually developed. The important factor in social change is 
therefore the economic factor. Economic considerations 
deal with only one class of human wants, and there are 
many other classes of social wants connected with the devel- 
opment of a state to any degree of social advancement ; but 
in general social relations between people have been largely 
determined by economic considerations. "The existence of 
man depends upon his ability to sustain himself; the 
economic life is therefore the fundamental condition of all 
life. ... To economic causes, therefore, must be traced in 
last instance those transformations in the structure of 
society which themselves condition the relations of social 
classes and the various manifestations of social life." 
(E. R. A. Seligman, The Economic Interpretation of His- 
tory, p. 3.) 



34 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

The economic and industrial aspects of society show "the 
great advances in civilization that have come through those 
manifestations of intelligence which have lifted man from 
his precarious subjection to nature, and revealed to him 
how he may make its forces cooperate with his own pur- 
poses." We see therefore that "The industrial history of 
man is not a materialistic or merely utilitarian affair. It 
is a matter of intelligence. Its record is the record of how 
man learned to think, to think to some effect, to transform 
the conditions of life so that life itself became a different 
thing. It is an ethical record as well; the account of the 
conditions which men have patiently wrought out to serve 
their ends." (John Dewey, The School and Society, pp. 
156-157.) 

READING 

Dopp, K. E. — The Relation of History and Industry, Ele- 
mentary School Teacher, March, 1904. 

GiDDiNGS, F. H. — The Economic Significance of Culture, 
Political Science Quarterly, September, 1903. 

Herbeetson, a. J. and F. D. — Man and His Work, Mac- 
millan. 

Chap. VII. The Influence of Occupation on the 
Mode of Life. 

Seligman, E. R. a. — The Economic Interpretation of His- 
tory, Columbia University Press. 

The Relation of Art and Science to Occupations 

Art has always been an important factor in community 
life and in determining progress. Grosse in his Begin- 
nings of Art, says: "There is no people without art . . . 
even the rudest and most miserable tribes devote a large 
part of their time and strength to art — art, which is looked 
down upon and treated by civilized nations, from the height 
of their practical and scientific achievements, more and 
more as idle play. And yet it seems wholly inconceivable, 
from the point of view of modern science, that a function to 
which so great a mass of energy is applied should be of no 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 35 

consequence in the maintenance and the development of the 
social organism; for if the energy which man devotes to 
aesthetic creation and enjoyments were lost in the earnest 
and essential tasks of life, if art were indeed only idle play, 
then natural selection should have long ago rejected the 
peoples which wasted their force in so purposeless a way, in 
favour of other peoples of practical talents; and art could 
not possibly have been developed so highly and richly as it 
has been . . . the differences between primitive and 
higher art forms appear to be more of a quantitative than 
a qualitative sort. The emotions represented in primitive 
art are narrow and rude, its materials are scanty, its forms 
are poor and coarse, but in its essential motives, means and 
aims the art of the earliest times is one with the art of all 
times . . . the most efficient and most beneficent effect 
which art exercises over the life of the people consists in 
the strengthening and extension of the social bonds to which 
it contributes. ... As science enriches and elevates our 
intellectual life, so art enriches and elevates our emotional 
life. Art and science are the two most powerful means for 
the education of the human race. Thus art is no idle play, 
but an indispensable social function, one of the most effi- 
cient weapons in the struggle for existence; ... A con- 
sciousness of the importance of art to social welfare, has 
moreover, existed in man in all ages. ... We have the 
right to demand of art that it work in the direction of a 
social purpose." (E. Grosse, TJi'e Beginnings of Art, pp. 
307-315.*) 

We must not lose sight of the vital relationship between 
art and ordinary occupations in the history of the race. 
Industry has had a powerful influence in developing arts of 
all kinds. The industry and inventive genius of early man 
was rewarded by leisure which gave opportunity for expres- 
sion to the stores of energy released. "It is in such periods 
as these that we find activities similar in kind to those per- 
formed at other times, but different in their end. Free 
from the conditions imposed by the real hunt, the savage 
plays he is hunting, and we have the beginning of the 

*By permission D. Appleton & Co. Copyright 1897. 



36 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

dance. ... At other times man may expend his surplus 
energy in the search for bright and shining objects, which he 
may pierce and string, and we have the beginning of dress 
and decoration ; or he may trace in the sand, or on the walls 
of his cave, or on the bones of animals he has slain, mere 
lines at haphazard, until by a happy coordination he pro- 
duces a semblance to some familiar form, and we have the 
beginning of drawing. It would be easy to multiply 
instances of this kind ; but these are sufficient to illustrate 
the fact that the beginnings of art depend upon leisure and 
an accumulation of energy, and that the art instinct, which 
is bound up at first with the workmanship instinct, becomes 
free only as less strenuous conditions of life afford room for 
its manifestation." (K. E. Dopp, TJie Place of Industries 
in Education, pp. 24-25.*) 

In the early days of art development no sharp line 
divided the fine from the useful arts. Use and beauty were 
regarded as one; their separation has been brought about 
largely by commercial production. Any useful object — a 
piece of pottery, a bit of weaving, a basket, an implement 
for hunting — took on an art value when the maker sought 
to objectify by means of it his own personal thoughts and 
feelings. ' ' Everybody who has not a purely literary view of 
the subject recognizes that genuine art grows out of the 
work of the artisan. The art of the Renaissance was great 
because it grew out of the manual arts of life. It did not 
spring up in a separate atmosphere, however ideal, but 
carried on to their spiritual meaning processes found in 
homely and everyday forms of life. . . . The merely artisan 
side is narrow, but the mere art, taken by itself, and grafted 
on from without, tends to become forced, empty, senti- 
mental. . . . All art involves physical organs — the eye and 
hand, the ear and voice; and yet it is something more 
than the mere technical skill required by the organs of 
expression. It involves an idea, a thought, a spiritual 
rendering of things ; and yet it is other than any number of 
ideas by themselves. It is a living union of thought and the 

*By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1902 by 
The University of Chicago, 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 37 

instrument of expression." (John Dewey, The School and 
Society, pp. 77-78.*) 

Science and occupations are also organically interrelated. 
"The history of culture shows that mankind's scientific 
knowledge and technical abilities have developed, especially 
in all their earlier stages, out of the fundamental problems 
of life. Anatomy and physiology grew out of the practical 
needs of keeping healthy and active; geometry and me- 
chanics out of demands for measuring land, for building, 
and for making labor-saving machines ; astronomy has been 
closely connected with navigation, keeping record of the 
passage of time ; botany grew out of the requirements of 
medicine and agronomy ; chemistry has been associated with 
dyeing, metallurgy, and other industrial pursuits. In turn, 
modern industry is almost wholly a matter of applied 
science; year by year the domain of routine and crude 
empiricism is narrowed by the translation of scientific dis- 
covery into industrial invention. The trolley, the telephone, 
the electric light, the steam engine, with all their revolution- 
ary consequences for social intercourse and control, are the 
fruits of science." (John Dewey, How We Think, pp. 167- 
168.) Every advance in industry depends upon the suc- 
cessful application of a scientific formula, and makes clear 
new needs, giving rise to new scientific discoveries. The 
scientist wrests from nature the secret of her forces; the 
artisan utilizes the knowledge thus gained, and moulds it 
into forms of use and beauty better adapted to the needs 
of human life. Thus related science, art, and industry have 
become a fundamental motive force of social advancement. 
"What is science? We are too apt to think of it merely 
as something ponderous, kept in equally ponderous books. 
But it is much truer to think of it not as lifeless printed 
material, but as something living in the mind and influ- 
encing one's work. For science is born anew in the delib- 
erate will and intention of each of us when we succeed in 
thinking about the principles of our work in a clear, logical, 

*By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1900 by 
The University of Chicago. Copyright 1900 and 1915 by John 
Dewey. 



S8 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

and systematic way, and courageously put our conclusions 
to the test of experiment ; and the so-called sciences are the 
written records of such thinking, only more extensive, clear, 
systematic and consistent, and more true to reality because 
they have been tested by countless experiments and experi- 
ences in the race ... all theory, all knowledge, all the broad 
groups of sciences, originally sprang from the experience 
gathered by man from one or other of his numerous occupa- 
tions. Thinking has arisen from doing ; thought from action. 
Do not imagine that science floats, as it were, in the clouds, 
serenely isolated from the hum and bustle and occupations 
of the busy world, and developing in some mysterious 
manner of its own. The more vividly you realize this great 
truth, that science ultimately sprang, and is continually 
springing, from the desires and efforts of men to increase 
their skill in their occupations by understanding the 
eternal principles that underlie all dealing of man with 
Nature and of man with his fellow-men (that is, the manual 
and mental occupations, industry, trade, the professions, 
and so on), the more vividly will you see the deep 
importance of science to all occupations. You will 
then recognize the other side of the relation; for 
every action there is always a reaction. If science 
ultimately has sprung from, and is continually spring- 
ing anew from, occupations science has repaid the debt 
both by rendering those who follow her teaching more 
skilled in their occupations and by actually giving rise by 
her discoveries to absolutely new types of occupations. One 
of the great conditions of human progress is this unceasing 
reciprocal relationship between occupation and science, each 
constantly producing and being produced by the other." 
(B. Branford, Science and Occupation, London Journal of 
Education, June, 1904, p. 435.*) 

*By permission of Mr. B. Branford and the London Journal of 
Education and School World. Copyright 1906. 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 89 



READING 

Branpord, B. — Science and Occupation, London Journal of 

Education, June, 1904. 
Grosse, E. — The Beginnings of Art, Appleton. 
Herbertson, a, J. and F. D. — Man and His Work, Mac- 

millan. 

Chap. IX. Rise of the Arts. 

The Evolution of the Scientific Method of Thinking 

Because of his peculiar psychological make-up, man was 
early led to methods of investigation and experimentation 
in order to solve the environmental situation. The mental 
characteristic which distinguishes man from the lower ani- 
mals is his ability to analyze his experience, to separate 
successful elements from unsuccessful, and to apply the 
valuable results to new situations as they arise. An animal 
has, compared with man, little ability to profit by past 
experience, little ability to learn. Even primitive man 
constantly made use of trial by experiment and reasoning 
by analysis. His limitations were largely due to the fact 
that through the narrow range of his experience he had 
few facts to reckon with. He early began reasoning from 
his observations and evolving theories of the nature of 
things, which, though crude, were intelligent generalizations 
of experience. In the course of his inquiries he not only 
accumulated valuable stores of knowledge, but learned more 
and more successful and economic methods of obtaining his 
facts and of testing their validity. Through experience he 
learned how to learn. Had man not had this power, knowl- 
edge would have been nothing more than a memory of past 
incidents, and would have given us no clue to the solution 
of present problems, or power to predict the future. The 
possibility of progress under such conditions is highly 
problematical. 

The earliest use of experience as a guide to action was 
probably not very conscious. At first events were thought 
of as individual, but gradually by the repeated association. 



40 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

of certain events with certain others, the sequence was seen 
to be not the result of a happy chance, but was observed to 
be constant. Certain results were seen to flow inevitably 
from certain antecedent conditions. When it was observed 
that a certain order of events had been uniform in the past, 
it was natural to infer that they would remain uniform in 
the future, and it was possible to regulate his conduct 
accordingly. Thus through the power of prediction man 
was able to adjust his actions to future events, to meet new 
situations successfully, and continuity in conduct was 
thereby established. This technique of thinking which has 
been gradually refined and brought under control by man, 
finds its highest expression in the method of the scientist. 
Scientific method, associated as it is in our minds with 
a particular technique of thinking achieved only by special- 
ists under unusual circumstances, working with peculiar 
apparatus, is thus seen to be not different in kind, but only 
in degree from the thinking of the ordinary person. Scien- 
tific thinking is not synonymous with thinking about sci- 
ence; such thinking has often been unscientific enough. 
On the contrary, it is an attitude of mind and a skill that 
may be employed on any kind of subject-matter. It might 
be looked upon as thinking that has become unusually con- 
scious of itself and skilled in modes of arriving at conclu- 
sions. It is distinguished from ordinary thinking by exact- 
ness and by exhaustiveness of treatment. The transition 
from the ordinary to the scientific attitude of mind is made 
when one ceases to take things for granted and assumes 
instead a disposition to test opinions by inquiring into 
facts. The person who, through a process of comparing, 
inferring, and testing sees the relationships between facts, is 
using scientific method. It is the want of impersonal judg- 
ment, and of the accurate assessment of evidence which 
renders clear thinking so rare, and random and irrespon- 
sible judgments so common. The scientific attitude is the 
dynamic attitude; it regards facts as hypotheses to be dis- 
carded as soon as further experience proves them to be 
untenable. It is only by this process that man has been 
able to extend his control over the forces of nature. It is 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 41 

only through the process of continually replacing one for- 
mula by another of wider significance that we can under- 
stand the real nature of the universe. The field of science 
is unlimited. It is only when every phenomena has been 
examined and classified that the mission of science will be 
completed. It can never end until man ceases to be, until 
development ceases. 

- READING 

Dewey, John. — How We Think, Heath. 

Chap. I. What is Thought? 

Chap. VL The Analysis of a Complete Act of 
Thought. 

Chap. VII. Systematic Inference. 

Chap. VIII. Judgment. 

Chap. IX. Meaning. 

Chap. X. Concrete and Abstract Thinking. 

Chap. XL Empirical and Scientific Thinking. 
Thomson, J, A. — An Introduction to Science, Holt. 

Chap. III. Scientific Method. 

The Evolution of Knowledge 

The fundamental sources of movement in society are to 
be discovered in the primary needs of mankind. They 
initiate the adjustments to be made between man and 
nature. Primitive man, in common with all other living 
organisms, was continually forced into vital relations with 
his physical environment, and such was the characteristic 
of his responses to the situations that arose that, from the 
first, he made attempts to modify and utilize the materials 
and forces of nature for the maintenance of his life 
processes. He also began to ponder over the significance of 
his experiences. Through his attempts to understand his 
experience and to find out what forces have made the world 
of experience what it is, he gradually accumulated a stock 
of useful information about the world in which he lived. 
The occupations on which he was dependent for life stim- 
ulated his quest of knowledge of nature, and each advance 



42 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

in oeeupation yielded something to Ms general store of 
information. From personal experience he soon grew to 
have quite a respectable fund of common-sense, everyday 
knowledge. ''He had gained this knowledge under the 
impulse of his need of food, protection, shelter, and clothing. 
He was familiar with the habits of all the wild animals of 
his locality, and with most of the useful and poisonous 
plants. He was familiar with the topography of the various 
regions in which he lived and with the special advantages 
afforded by each. He knew the signs of the weather and 
the relation of the changing position of some of the heav- 
enly bodies to coming changes in his own activities. He had 
learned the limitations and the possibilities of the raw 
materials with which he worked, how to select the best 
materials for his weapons, implements, and utensils, and 
how to manufacture and manipulate the same." (K. E. 
Dopp, Tlie Place of Industries in Education, pp. 30-31.) 
Man at even this early stage had made some prog- 
ress in the arts and sciences. "In a rude way he was a 
physicist in making a fire, a chemist in cooking, a surgeon 
in binding wounds, a geographer in knowing his rivers and 
mountains, a mathematician in counting on his fingers." 
However, the vast complex of physical phenomena by which 
he was surrounded, the evidences of power in the universe, 
still impressed him with wonder and terror. On the 
fringes of his matter-of-fact knowledge there gathered a 
rich cosmological lore, highly dramatic in character, in the 
form of myth or legend, in which the various forces of 
nature as yet unaccounted for in work-a-day experience 
were personified. Many of the primitive rites and ceremonies 
have to do with this mythical belief, in which thank offer- 
ings were made to spirits that were benign, and sacrifices 
to those that were hostile. These are the two original 
springs from which the stream of knowledge has flowed 
through the centuries. 

The possession of articulate language by human beings is 
supremely important, enabling the knowledge of each 
individual to become the property of the community. 
Without a ready means of communication the myriad units 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 43 

who perform tlieir individual tasks would be unable to 
coordinate their experiences for the common good, and what 
was discovered by one generation could not be handed on 
to the next. Knowledge gained by oral language is re- 
stricted and unreliable; where it alone is achieved by a 
social group its transmission is dependent upon personal 
communication and the validity of memory. "When with 
the invention of written symbols, oral tradition gave way 
to written records, "the funded capital of civilization" 
accumulated at a much greater rate, and its transmission 
to the next generation was the more adequately secured. 
This possibility of a gradually accumulating store of knowl- 
edge by which the experiences of one generation may be 
contributed to the next is a condition fundamental to social 
evolution. It constitutes one of the essential superiorities 
of man over every other animal species. The knowledge 
possessed by other animals is instinctive, it is not gained 
through personal experience, and it does not progress from 
age to age. Man is the only animal with a social tradition. 
Except for the transmission of knowledge, the work of the 
past would have had to be done anew by each generation, 
and man could not have progressed far beyond the satisfac- 
tion of his elemental needs. The stage of savagery, there- 
fore, would have been his permanent social status. 

For a long time the knowledge gained by early man 
remained a chaotic mass of isolated facts, gained as the 
result of many separate experiences with the apparently 
discrete phenomena of nature, and without apparent order 
or connection. Gradually, however, with increasing experi- 
ence, and his ability to analyze his experiences, to note 
similarities and differences, man was able to make certain 
deductions as appropriate explanations of his experiences, 
and this mass of information, formerly haphazard and 
chaotic, gradually assumed a primitive kind of organiza- 
tion. Particular concrete phenomena were seen to be part 
of a great orderly relationship. Similar facts were related 
into a general category ; dissimilar facts were separated and 
combined with those with which they were related. In the 
evolution of knowledge we see the continuous struggle of 



44 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

the human mind to reach a more comprehensive and exact 
formulation of experiences. By more and more methodical 
examination and systematic inquiry into the character- 
istics of phenomena, common sense and empirical knowl- 
edge have gradually given way to purposeful investigation 
in which facts have been condensed into general laws and 
the whole organized according to the best knowledge of the 
time. Men study a range of facts, they classify and ana- 
lyze, they discover relationships and sequences and then 
they describe in the simplest formula possible the widest 
range of related phenomena. It is in this way, by a process 
of accretion and elimination that the body of verified 
knowledge which the human race has accumulated in its 
long history has been slowly and gradually built up out of 
experience and organized according to prevailing ideas. 
The outer margins of knowledge at any given time are thus 
seen to be the scientific knowledge of the time. As knowl- 
edge has accumulated, the frontiers of tested knowledge 
have been steadily extended through the addition of new 
truths around their natural centers of attraction. Every 
generalization has been replaced by a broader hypothesis. 
On the fringes of this body of knowledge has always dwelt 
a mixture of truth and speculation — dogmas, myths, super- 
stitions — all those forms of belief which have not yet been 
subjected to verification in experience, but which none the 
less exert a potent influence on the minds of the people. 
Each successive century has put under inquiry such matters 
as lay within the range of its particular interests, and has 
modified the classifications of the preceding age. The con- 
tent of science has thus continuously increased with every 
increase in man's positive knowledge, and the amount of 
unverified knowledge has been steadily reduced. If we 
survey the whole gamut of knowledge we realize that there 
is implicit in every subject a possible science of the subject, 
which consists of the organized principles of the field of 
knowledge represented by that subject, the body of laws 
and principles which govern that particular set of facts. 
By the evolution of knowledge from its primitive form to 
its final form in the sciences, the world of experience is seen 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 45 

to be governed by universal laws, and what was originally 
thought by primitive man to be a chaos, is now found to be 
a cosmos. 

This, then, is the general nature of the process by which 
knowledge has been accumulated by the human race. The 
important fact to remember is that it is the outcome of the 
workings of the human mind upon the problems funda- 
mental to sustaining life. Humanity has not accumulated 
all this vast mass of communicable experience which we 
call science, without the constant and powerful stimulus of 
needing that knowledge, either directly or indirectly, for 
the more efficient pursuit of various occupations. 

EEADING 

Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, Maemillan. 

Chap. XXV. Theories of Knowledge. 
Dewey, John. — Article on Knowledge, Cyclopedia of Edu- 
cation. Maemillan. 
Ellwood, C. a. — An Introduction to Social Psychology, 
Appleton. 

Chap. VI, The Nature of Social Continuity. 
Peakson, K. — The Grammar of Science, Scott, London. 

Chap. I. Introductory — The Scope and Method 
of Science. 
Thomson, J. A. — Introduction to Science, Holt. 
Tylor, E. B. — Anthropology, Appleton. 
Chap. XIII. Science, 

The Evolution of Organs of Social Regulation 

The life of man in society, like that of other organic 
species, is a struggle for existence, but it differs from that 
of animal societies in being a psychical process in which 
man consciously aims to produce social structures, by means 
of which the benefits of association may be the more 
effectively realized. Society carries on its life under the 
influence of psychical forces brought about by the interac- 
tion of minds. In a group of relatively free individuals 
with a ready means of communication, there is a free and 



46 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

rapid interchange of psychical impulses. In the give and 
take of social life mental states are modified. Participation 
in common experiences tends to produce identical feelings 
and closely resembling ideas. The social process is there- 
fore a process of assimilation, a process of integrating the 
ideas and attitudes of the members of a group into an 
organic whole. The cultural scheme of a community is a 
composite of the thoughts and beliefs of the constituents, 
and is represented by its institutions. Solutions to prob- 
lems worked out by one generation are preserved for the 
benefit of the next by means of institutions. They become 
the channels by which the accumulated experience of gen- 
erations is continuously passed on, thus giving continuity to 
society and preserving racial achievements. Institutions 
by their very nature, however, tend to remain fixed; they 
are the products of past circumstances, while society lives 
in a rapidly changing environment produced by a multi- 
tude of factors interacting upon one another. Hence no set 
of institutions entirely applies to a present situation; they 
are in need of constant modification. Social progress comes 
about through successive changes in the social tradition as 
represented by institutions, but these changes do not occur 
until the need of change is felt by a sufficient number of the 
members of a community. When this point is reached there 
is a revaluation and revision of the traditional rules govern- 
ing social relationships. Now the two great sources of 
influence upon the minds of the members of a community 
motivating social action, are the point of view arrived at as 
the result of present experience with the environmental 
situation, and that which comes from the accumulated ex- 
periences of past generations as handed down by institu- 
tions. The various constituents of a community are affected 
in different proportions by these two great classes of influ- 
ence. The portion of the community most exposed by 
economic causes to the pressure of changes in the environ- 
ment seek to make changes in institutions to better their 
condition; any portion of the community habitually re- 
lieved from economic pressure so that it does not personally 
experience the effects of changes in the environment will 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 47 

not so quickly see the necessity for changes in institutions. 
They become the conservative class, traditionally minded, 
which acts as a check upon social transformation. Between 
these two extremes lie all possible gradations. 

Social progress is thus seen to be an evolutionary process, 
but it is a process in which the intelligence and will of men 
must enter. Progress cannot be taken for granted; it is 
the result of forethought, of the conscious regulation of 
social affairs. Since society in the past has not been par- 
ticularly conscious of its own processes, social regulation 
has followed a more or less blind haphazard course in which 
inertia has played an important part. Discrepancies be- 
tween economic demands and the means of meeting them 
have been allowed to increase until serious maladjustments 
have resulted, and a more adequate social organization has 
been secured only after violent social upheavals. Although 
living within an association, few people have comprehended 
its nature, and as a result society has been overtaken by 
changes; it has not understood the means by which social 
changes might be consciously guided. It is evident that for 
the proper development of social adaptation, some form of 
social technique must be worked out by means of which 
institutions can convey to each generation the beneiits of 
past experience, and yet remain flexible instruments com- 
petent to shape progress. This state of affairs can be 
brought about only when the scientific attitude is assumed 
in relation to the problems of society. To look ahead, to 
modify the present with reference to the future, is a pre- 
requisite of an intelligently progressive society. It is only 
when social life reaches the point where it consciously con- 
trols the conditions of its life that rational social advance- 
ment is assured. 

READING 

Elwood, C. a. — Introduction to Social Psychology, Apple- 
ton. 

Chap. VII. Social Change under Normal Condi- 
tions. 



48 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Chap. VIIL Social Change under Abnormal Con- 
ditions. 
Chap. XXL Social Order. 
Veblen, T. — T^e Theory of tlie Leisure Class, Huebsch. 

Chap. VIII. Industrial Exemption and Conserv- 
atism. 

TJie Present Social Situation 

The story of civilization is the story of social relation- 
ships; it is the story of man's efforts to create more and 
more effective forms of group life, and to establish agencies 
by means of which social adaptation may the more effec- 
tually operate. During the last century the cumulative 
effect of the principal forces that have been moulding the 
modern world have found expression in three inter-related 
forms: science, industry, and democracy. 

The latter half of the eighteenth century and the first 
quarter of the nineteenth century were periods of great 
scientific activity. As a result of the vast increase in 
scientific knowledge and its application to industry, making 
it possible to utilize natural forces for large scale pro- 
duction, a new industrial era has been inaugurated. 
Through the centralization of capital, the unit of produc- 
tion has been changed from the family to a compact unit 
of hundreds of workers, brought together in an especially 
adapted establishment, provided with the most extensive 
mechanical equipment. The process of production is ana- 
lyzed and subdivided into the greatest possible number of 
parts, and workmen of varying ability are set to work on the 
different parts simultaneously. This plan of combining 
workers effects an enormous increase in the output over that 
which could be produced by the same number of independ- 
ent workers, since each worker, confined entirely to one job, 
develops great skill and dexterity in it. As a result we 
have developed in factory production a highly specialized 
routine labor adjusted to machinery. The complexity of 
the processes has necessitated the closest study of technical 
problems and of conditions making for economy and effi- 
ciency of production. 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 49 

The very perfection of the mechanism of production now 
threatens, however, to become a menace, since it disregards 
the human factor involved. Machines were invented as a 
means whereby human beings might the more effectively 
satisfy their needs. In modern machine production the 
relation of means to ends in the relation of the workman to 
his machine has been entirely reversed. Instead of the 
worker using his machine for the realization of his own 
purposes, the machine now completely dominates the 
operator, tending to make of him a mere appendage which 
the ingenuity of an inventor has not yet succeeded in devis- 
ing. ' ' The logical development of factory organization has 
been the complete coordination of all factors which are 
auxiliary to mechanical power and devices. The most im- 
portant auxiliary factor is human labor. A worker is a per- 
fected factory attachment as he surrenders himself to the 
time and the rhythm of the machine and its functioning ; as 
he supplements without loss whatever human faculties the 
machine lacks, whatever imperfection hampers the ma- 
chine in the satisfaction of its needs. If it lacks eyes, he 
sees for it; he walks for it, if it is without legs; and he 
pulls, drags, lifts, if it needs arms. All of these things 
are done by the factory worker at the pace set by the 
machine and under its direction and command. A worker's 
indulgence in his personal desires or impulses hinders the 
machine and lowers his attachment value. This division of 
the workers into eyes, arms, fingers, legs, the plucking out 
of some one of his faculties and discarding the rest of the 
man as valueless has seemed to be an organic requirement 
of machine evolution." (H. Marot, Creative Impulse in 
Industry, pp. 4r-5.*) The discovery through scientific 
management that the principles of efficiency which were 
formerly thought applicable only to the mechanical phases 
of production might likewise be employed to regulate the 
energy supplied by the worker, has been the last link in the 
chain firmly riveting the operator to his machine. The 
whole motive force to activity is now seen to have passed 
from human beings into machinery. The complete prostra- 

*By permissiott E. P. Dutton & Co. Copyright 1918. 



50 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

tion of the instinct of workmanship under these circum- 
stances is inevitable. 

The demands of labor unions are symptomatic. Human 
beings resist being made into machines, and the constant 
demand for shorter hours indicates the desire of the workers 
to escape from work which is disintegrating to personality. 
The workmen have combined against the employer to gain 
the freedom which they see steadily being taken away from 
them. Since they think themselves the inevitable victims of 
a machine age, their only chance for individual develop- 
ment seems to lie outside of their work. It has been found 
in innumerable instances, however, that increase in wages 
and the shortening of hours in no way solves the problem. 
The difficulty is far more fundamental in character. In the 
process of industrial evolution the factor which in the past 
has made of industry a great liberating force for the release 
of human values, has been cut off from it. Until we can in 
some way restore this factor so that it is again made 
tributary to industry, we can never hope for a solution to 
this great social problem. The present industrial organiza- 
tion does not offer to the worker the motive for work. What 
is the motive to industry? How far are the motives upon 
which industry has advanced in the past still operative? 
These are the fundamental questions which must be 
answered. 

The great advances in industry have been made through 
the application of scientific inventions to mechanical 
processes. In the modem system of production with its 
rigid application of the principle of division of labor, 
science and industry have become divorced. Specialists in 
laboratories work out the needed formulas. These pass 
through several departments and finally reach their appli- 
cation in the joint output of the workers. The present 
regime shuts off inquiry on the part of the workman into 
the processes upon which he is engaged. He has no oppor- 
tunity to accumulate valuable experiences from his labor 
and becomes a mere automaton in the performance of the 
day's work. As a result his work has no meaning to him; 
he sees in it no relation to his own needs and purposes. No 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 51 

satisfactory solution can be found to the industrial problem 
until the union of science and industry is again made 
operative in the personality of the artisan. We must 
restore to the workers a consciousness of the scientific im- 
plications of the processes upon which they are engaged. 
The laws of the physical sciences are statements of certain 
combinations of conditions. Scientific application consists 
in the creation by means of human invention of a set of 
conditions which do not occur simultaneously in nature. 
Efficient production will result only when the workers are 
made participators in the creation of new conditions that 
make possible new applications of science. It is only when 
the worker is allowed to become a conscious director of 
the natural forces with which he is dealing that the will 
to work is fostered; any other environment offers no in- 
centive to increased effort. If through giving the oppor- 
tunity to the workers for personal initiative in investigation 
and experimentation, the scientific values can be restored 
to industry, it will again resume its place as a fundamental 
motive force for the advancement of the human race. The 
question is how to bring about the necessary changes in 
the present complex state of the industrial arts. The prob- 
lem for those engaged in the conduct of industry consists 
in creating conditions by means of which this ideal may 
become effective in operation; the problem for those con- 
cerned with education consists in forwarding a type of 
education which, among other things, will develop a funda- 
mental concept of industry in its relation to the advance- 
ment of social life. In other words, we must introduce 
education into industry, and industry into education. 

The advance of science and industry during the last 
century has been accompanied politically by an advance 
in democratic control. The spread of democratic ideals 
and institutions, the dominant feature of contemporary 
life, is not a characteristic isolated from its scientific and 
industrial tendencies but rather a recognition of their social 
significance. Democracy signifies a flexible form of social 
organization resting upon the will of the mass of the people 
and responsive to changes in their purposes. Political 



52 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

democracy dependent as it is upon a free movement of ex- 
periences and ideas can be notliing more than a mere term 
unless the people composing it are accustomed to a type of 
life-developing power related to responsibility. Since the 
modern world is an industrial world, it must remain a huge 
mechanism leaving the major portion of life unemancipated, 
unless industry is animated by the social spirit implicit in 
the democratic ideal. Beneath the mutual distrust of 
employer and workers lies a great fundamental problem as 
yet unsolved. The wage system is a system of industrial 
serfdom. Production is not for use but for profit. The 
worker sells his labor for a fixed price ; he has no rights in 
the product, he has no control over the conditions under 
which he works. It is evident that some form of reorganiza- 
tion is imperative for social welfare. As has been truly said 
in another connection, a nation cannot exist half slave and 
half free. We cannot expect the type of mind that has 
become inured to the benumbing effects of automatic labor 
for several hours each day, to express itself in its hours of' 
release in any useful or satisfying form. 

It is impossible to retrace the steps of evolution and 
return to an earlier, simpler, industrial regime in which the 
workman is his own master. We must find new values in 
the present industrial techniques. The only way that whole- 
some emotional reflexes can be restored to industry as it is 
now constituted is to take advantage of the opportunities 
resident in it for associated effort. The workers' sense of 
personal use must give way to a conception of social use. ' ' It 
happens that in machine production and in the division of 
labor there are emotional and intellectual possibilities which 
were non-existent in the earlier and simpler methods of pro- 
duction. As power latent in inorganic matter has been freed 
and applied to common needs, an environment has been 
evolved, filled with situations incomparably more dramatic 
than the provincial affairs of detached people and communi- 
ties. Although this technological subject matter, rich in op- 
portunities for associated adventure and infinite discovery, is 
not a part of common experience, it exists, and if called out 
from its isolation for purposes of common experimentation, 



THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 53 

it is fit matter for making science a vital experience in tlie 
productive life of the worker. . . . The present is better 
than any time earlier in the history of technology for the 
development of a concept of industry as a socially creative 
enterprise. ... In the labyrinth of mechanical processes 
and economic calculation it is not to-day possible for a 
worker to think or speak of a product as his. ... A 
worker's claim to the product of his labor is merged in an 
infinity of claims which makes the product more nearly the 
property of society than that of any one individual. And 
this merging of claims which has resulted in the submerging 
of all wage workers, has set up the new educational task of 
discovering the possibilities for creative experience in asso- 
ciated enterprise. 

"While an article manufactured under business condi- 
tions is the product of enforced association, we have in this 
condition the mechanics of a real association. As it now 
stands, the association is one of individuals, with the im- 
pulse for association and for creative effort left out. The 
interests of some ninety workers associated together in the 
making of a shoe are not common but antagonistic, except 
as they are common in their antagonism to the owner of the 
shoe on which they work. They hang together because they 
must ; their parting is the best part of a working day. 

*'And yet the practice of dividing up the fabrication of 
an article among the members of a group instead of con- 
fining the making of it to one or two people, opens up the 
possibility of extensive social intercourse, and has the 
power, we may discover, to sublimate the inordinate desire 
for the intensive satisfaction of personal life. Although 
the division of labor has given us a society which is abortive 
in its functioning like a machine with half assembled parts, 
it offers us the mechanics for interdependence and the 
opportunity to work out a coordinated industrial life." 
(H. Marot, Creative Impulse in Industry, pp. 25-28.*) 

The needed vivifying influence, capable of converting this 
sterile division of labor into a type tributary to the ad- 
vancement of social life is the democratic control of induS' 

*By permission E. P. Dutton & Co. Copyright 1918. 



54 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

try. Tlie cooperative system in which the workmen are 
responsible for the success or failure of their enterprise 
aims to restore the motive of personal interest to large scale 
production. Intrinsic interest in work which must often be 
lacking in machine production is supplemented by the 
stimulus to good workmanship coming through the sense 
of responsibility and cooperation. Machinery becomes to 
the worker a means to an end and is thereby invested with 
social value. 

EEADING 

Cole, G. D. H. — Labour in the Commonwealfh, Huebseh. 

Dewey, John. — The Need of Industrial Education in an 
Industrial Democracy, Manual Training Magazine, 
February, 1916. 

Maeot, Helen. — The Creative Impulse in Industry, Dutton. 

Parker, Carlton. — The Technique of American Industry, 
Atlantic Monthly, January, 1920. 

Wallace, A. R. — The Wonderful Century, Dodd Mead. 

Wolf, R. E. — The Creative Workman, The Technical Asso- 
ciation of the Pulp and Paper Industry, 117 East 24th 
St., N. Y. 

Wolf, R. E. — Making Men Like Their Jobs, System, Jan- 
uary and February, 1919. 

Wolf, R. E. — Control and Consent, Bulletin of the Taylor 
Society, March, 1917. 



PART II 
THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 

The Fimctiou of Education 

We have seen that, as a result of the superior type of his 
responses to the environmental situation, man has evolved 
a highly complex social world of customs, traditions, instil 
tutions and the like, which represent his ideas and beliefs. 
This accumulated experience of countless generations must 
be continuously passed on to the new members of society 
who are taking the places of those who die, if social progress 
is to continue unbroken. "We have seen that whereas among 
the lower animals almost all the characteristics necessary 
for existence are directly inherited from the parents, man 
inherits only a small proportion of the powers he requires 
to carry on his life. ** Every child is born destitute of 
things possessed in manhood which distinguish him from 
the lower animals. Of all industries he is artless; of all 
institutions he is lawless ; of all languages he is speechless ; 
of all philosophies he is opinionless ; of all reasoning he is 
thoughtless; but arts, institutions, language, opinions and 
mentations he acquires as the years go by from childhood 
to manhood. In all these respects the new-born babe is 
hardly the peer of the new-born beast ; but as the years pass, 
ever and ever he exhibits his superiority in all these great 
classes of activities, until the distance by which he is sep- 
arated from the brute is so great that his realm of existence 
is in another kingdom of nature." (J. "W. Powell, From 
Barharian to Civilization, American Anthropologist, 1888, 
p. 97.) In the course of a few years, the child born igno- 
rant, helpless, dependent, must be adjusted to a rich, com- 
plex, and constantly changing environment. Each genera- 
tion must take over into their lives all the fundamental 

55 



56 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

values of civilization wMeh it has required thousands of 
years to achieve. "Years, centuries, generations of inven- 
tion and planning, may have gone to the development of 
the performances and occupations surrounding the child. 
Yet for him their activities are direct stimuli; they are 
part of his natural environment. . . . He cannot, of course, 
appropriate their meaning directly through his senses; but 
they furnish stimuli to which he responds, so that his atten- 
tion is focussed upon a higher order of materials and of 
problems. "Were it not for this process by which the 
achievements of one generation form the stimuli that direct 
the activities of the next, the story of civilization would be 
writ in water, and each generation would have laboriously 
to make for itself, if it could, its way out of savagery." 
(John Dewey, How We Think, pp. 159-160.) This defines 
the high task of education ; it is evident that the ultimate 
reliance of all social reconstruction must be upon education. 
Society has always had a realization of this fact from 
primitive times to the present. In earlier, simpler societies 
the young were inducted into the collective knowledge of 
the community principally by direct participation in the 
life about them; but as time went on and knowledge in- 
creased greatly in amount, a special institution was dedi- 
cated to the work. The aim of education in each generation 
has been to enable the children to reach the highest point 
previously reached by the race. It seemed evident, there- 
fore, that the school must effect certain short cuts. The 
realization of this necessity together with a faulty knowl- 
edge of psychology has been responsible for the highly 
abstract form of school instruction. "There is a strong 
temptation to assume that presenting subject matter in its 
perfected form provides a royal road to learning. What 
more natural than to suppose that the immature can be 
saved time and energy, and be protected from needless 
error by commencing where competent inquirers have left 
off?" (John Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 257.) 
Therefore the curriculum is worked out in detail, so much 
of each subject for each year, and the whole work of the 
school made to revolve about this fixed scheme. "Subdivide 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 57 

each topic into studies ; each study into lessons ; each lesson 
into specific facts and formulae. Let the child proceed step 
by step to master each one of the separate parts, and at 
last he will have covered the entire ground. The road 
which looked so long when viewed in its entirety, is easily 
traveled, considered as a series of particular steps. Thus 
emphasis is put upon the logical sub-divisions and consecu- 
tions of the subject-matter. Problems of instruction are 
problems of procuring texts giving logical parts and 
sequences, and of presenting those portions in class in a 
similar, definite, and graded way. Subject-matter furnishes 
the end, and it determines method." (John Dewey, The 
Child and the Curriculum, pp. 12-13.) 

This mode of procedure, however effective it may be when 
the subject matter is regarded externally by itself, neglects 
the essential factor of the human being's peculiar method 
of assimilating subject matter. It is impossible for the 
school to make the short cut of verbally inducting the child 
into generalizations. We have seen that knowledge was 
the outcome of the experience of the race, and that it was 
gradually ordered and classified as wider and wider rela- 
tionships were perceived in the environment. Education, 
to function in the great evolutionary scheme of things, must 
te consistent with the underlying laws of development. 
The parallel between the development of the race and 
that of the child, recognition of which has expressed itself in 
the past in certain doctrinaire beliefs, notably the Culture 
Epoch Theory, lies in the process through which the human 
mind must go in order to reach its conclusions. The process 
is the same to-day as it was centuries ago. The only dif- 
ference is in the infinitely more complex environment with 
which the modern mind has to deal. Fundamentally, the 
possibility and opportunity for education lie in the 
capacity and necessity for the human organism to learn. 
A human being is an adaptive organism. It has certain 
vital n6eds to be met, and like all other organisms, it is 
subject to environmental influences. It has, however, in- 
finitely greater innate capacities than any other animal. 
These, as we have seen, are not effective at birth; their 



58 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

development depends upon experience. Born with the least 
coordinated and finished structure, the effective adjust- 
ments of the human infant have for the most part to be 
made after birth. We have seen that the scheme of adapta- 
tion in the animal world does not permit the development 
of effective modes of learning. The human infant on the 
other hand almost from birth begins responding to his 
environment in an effort to achieve his purposes. As he 
responds he experiences certain satisfactions and dissatisfac- 
tions and tends to modify his conduct accordingly. As a 
consequence of this interaction with the environment, more 
and more effective adaptations are made, and learning takes 
place at a rapid rate. We see, therefore, that education is 
implicit in the effective functioning of the life processes. 
"As to structure, human nature is undoubtedly the most 
plastic part of the living world, the most adaptable, the 
most educable. Of all animals, it is man in whom heredity 
counts for least, and conscious building forces for most. 
Consider that his infancy is longest, his instincts least fixed, 
his brain most unfinished at birth, his powers of habit-mak- 
ing and habit-changing most marked, his susceptibility to 
social impressions keenest, — and it becomes clear that in 
every way nature, as a prescriptive power, has provided in 
him for her own displacement. . . . Other creatures nature 
could largely finish; the human creature must finish him- 
self." (W. E. Hocking, Human Nature and Its BemaMng, 
pp. 9-10.) 

In the eager explorative nature of young children and in 
their plasticity, then, we have a condition readily lending 
itself to educative influences. Nature in requiring educa- 
tion has provided generously for facilitating it. It is only 
our blundering that has kept us from taking advantage of 
the great native resources at hand and utilizing them for 
educational purposes. Education begins at birth but left 
to chance it would be haphazard and ineffective. Con- 
sciously directed education should seek to guide and direct 
the natural process. The school is simply a part of the great 
institutional life which man has evolved the more ade- 
quately to advance himself. The problem of the school is 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 59 

how to adapt immature beings to a highly developed social 
environment. Child nature is the raw material of educa- 
tion, the stuff that has to be moulded into forms more 
efficient for social advancement. It seems evident, there- 
fore, that a scientifically directed education must begin with 
a psychological insight into childish needs and capacities, 
and must be conditioned at each stage of its development by 
just such insight. "... from the standpoint of the im- 
mature beings who . . . are being transformed into social 
members to sustain the community type of life, , . . educa- 
tion may be defined as a process of the pontinuous recon- 
struction of experience with the purpose of widening and 
deepening its social content, while, at the same time, the 
individual gains control of the methods involved, . . . Ex- 
perience is crude, narrow, and largely seK-centered. Yet 
it has within itself capacities of assimilating and re-creating 
what is most perfected, developed and generalized in cul- 
ture, for otherwise the wonderful products of art, industry, 
and science would never have come into being as in the 
past. Hence the educative process is a constant proc- 
ess of making-over the existing experience, so that the 
social values lying blindly and crudely within it shall 
be clarified and enlarged. Yet the leverage of this trans- 
formation must be sought and found within experience 
itself; experience cannot be made over from without, but 
only in the process of its own growth. There are dynamic, 
transitive tendencies in the very nature of experience which 
tend to keep it growing and expanding. The educational 
process provides stimuli that appeal to these intrinsic ten- 
dencies." (John Dewey, Education, Cyclopedia of Educa- 
tion, p. 400.*) 

We have now defined the problem of formal education 
and indicated suggestions for its solution. The task of edu- 
cation is continuously to induce such intellectual and emo- 
tional responses in developing organisms as will direct them 
into desirable social channels. The solution of the problem 
involves two factors: Social considerations determine the 
end toward which adaptations are to be directed, and sup- 

*By permission The Maemillan Co. Copyright 1911. 



60 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

ply us with the subject content of education ; psychological 
processes dictate the method by which our aim may be 
accomplished. 

EEADIN^G 
Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, MaemiUaiii 

First ten chapters. 
Dewey, John. — My Pedagogic Creed, Flanagan. 
Dewey, John. — Prospective Elementary Education ia 
Teaching the Elementary School subjects, edited by L. 
Rapeer. Macmillan. 
Dewey, John. — Psychology and Social Practice, Univer- 
sity of Chicago Press. 
Dewtey, John. — The School and Society, University of 
Chicago Press. 

Chap. I. The School and Social Progress. 
Chap. II. The School and the Life of the Child. 
Chap. III. "Waste in Education. 
Chap. IV. The Psychology of Elementary Educa- 
tion. 
Dewey, John. — ^Articles on Education, Experiment in 

Education, Cyelopsedia of Education. 
Jennings, "Watson, Meyer and Thomas. — Suggestions of 

Modem Science Concerning Education, Macmillan. 
Small, A. W. — The Demands of Sociology upon Pedagogy, 
Flanagan. 

The Place of Activity in Education 

The question of method leads naturally to a consideration 
of the place of activity in education. The curriculum of 
most elementary schools already includes a variety of active 
pursuits such as constructive work, modelling, plays and 
games and the like. Their introduction in many cases has 
been sanctioned for no better reason than as a concession 
to the persistent activity of children. "When for the greater 
part of each day children are forced into unnatural posi- 
tions of passive receptivity, activity of any sort is welcomed 
by teacher and children alike as a relief from the resulting 
tedium and strain. To accept such a view is, however, to 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 61 

4 

assess activity in a purely negative way, and to fail entirely 
to appreciate its profound educational significance. It is 
thereby reduced to a trivial role, as a mere matter of ex- 
pediency, or as a diversion from the serious undertakings 
of the school. Such a view also fails to offer any standards 
of educational values in active pursuits: all are thereby 
reduced to a dead level. 

Active pursuits as they are now often conducted in 
schools are open to another serious criticism. The teacher, 
in her zeal for achieving results, centers h^ attention upon 
the finished product — the factor of least importance in the 
situation — and fails to center it upon the process, which is 
the really essential part of the whole matter. The products 
of childish activity can never be regarded as of any value 
except as an index of the intellectual factors implicit in 
them. They should be allowed to be as crude as the child's 
poorly coordinated muscles necessitate. The child should 
be allowed to make mistakes, if need be, in order that by his 
natural method of trial and error he may gain judgment 
for use in later attempts. A scheme of activities to be really 
educative should be rich in possibilities for making mis- 
takes, since it is precisely at this point that education takes 
place. The teacher 's business is not to prevent mistakes — 
which she is likely to do when her attention is centered on 
the product — ^but to see that the child receives the full edu- 
cational benefit of his mistakes after he has made them. 
An automatic machine makes no mistakes, but it also 
evolves no ways of meeting new situations ; it cannot learn. 
Automatic control among animals marks their limitations. 
Habituation in human beings marks the end of progress in 
any series of thought processes. School activities, developed 
by methods of prescription and dictation, provide only 
training, by which pupils are enabled to meet more success- 
fully the same situation when it recurs ; they fail to provide 
education, by which pupils are able to meet with ingenious 
solution new situations as they arise. One of the essentials 
of growth is that children should be left free to work out 
for themselves the methods and processes of successful 
activity. 



62 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

In following the course of evolutionary changes we saw 
the gradual emergence of more and more purposeful activ- 
ity as a vital factor in the struggle for existence ; we saw 
that it was through purposeful activity that man has grad- 
ually brought the materials and forces of nature under his 
control and thus achieved his supremacy in the world. In 
the development of civilization we saw that it was through 
the exigencies of daily life, through the emergencies which 
man was constantly obliged to meet in providing food, 
clothing, shelter, and his other necessities, that he was 
obliged to plan, to forecast the results of various lines of 
action, to* formulate purposes, and to devise the proper 
means for their successful and economical realization. All 
of this means thinking ; it means thinking in the most valu- 
able sense of the term. It has been through the constant 
exercise of this kind of thinking that man has improved his 
technique of thinking, so that he is able to deal with situa- 
tions of the greatest complexity. In following the evolution 
of knowledge we saw that dogma and superstition always 
dwelt on the fringes, and represented beliefs that had not 
yet been subjected to the test of experience. Progress in 
knowledge has been the gradual extension of tested knowl- 
edge and the consequent diminution of unfounded beliefs. 
Purposeful activity may therefore be looked upon as the 
primary human motive force. It is such activity that has 
made civilization what it is ; it is only by such activity that 
progress can continue through each successive generation. 
Activity, therefore, instead of being a by-product of the 
educative process, is the process itself, since it is through 
purposeful activity that learning takes place and that tested 
knowledge accrues. 

It is because thinking is integrally related to purposeful 
activity that activities offer a rich opportunity for the 
emergence of thought-provoking problems. "When knowl- 
edge is pursued directly, as is the case in the old school 
regime, there is comparatively little opportunity for devel- 
oping this most valuable type of thinking. Children are 
allowed to think, but only upon isolated issues, on little 
unrelated units chosen and arranged in advance for them. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 63 

Tliey are rarely permitted to think their way out of situa- 
tions. Little opportunity is given for adapting ideas in 
relation to a problem to be solved. For the most part the 
attempt is made to give training in thought by ready-made 
methods. The power of thought cannot be developed by the 
direct method. What is passed on under such circumstances 
is the solution, not the process hy which it was arrived at. 
Thinking in childhood is not different in kind from the 
reasoning of adults. The difference lies in the narrow 
range of childish experience and in the less highly special- 
ized thinking processes. It is evident that the child cannot 
pursue the elaborate technique of adult thinking. He can, 
however, organize his crude processes to meet situations 
that are concrete and simple. It is the task of education to 
help children improve their methods of thinking by making 
them conscious of problems, and skilled in methods of solv- 
ing them. "The most significant question which can be 
asked, accordingly, about any situation or experience pro- 
posed to induce learning is what quality of problem it 
involves. At first thought, it might seem as if usual school 
methods measured well up to the standard here set. The 
giving of problems, the putting of questions, the assigning 
of tasks, the magnifying of difficulties, is a large part of 
school work. But it is indispensable to discriminate between 
genuine and simulated or mock problems. The following 
questions may aid in making such discrimination, (a) 
Is there anything hut a problem? Does the question nat- 
urally suggest itself within some situation of personal ex- 
perience? Or is it an aloof thing, a problem only for the 
purposes of conveying instruction in some school topic ? Is 
it the sort of trying that would arouse observation and en- 
gage experimentation outside of school? (&) Is it the pu- 
pil's own problem, or is it the teacher's or text-book's prob- 
lem, made a problem for the pupil only because he cannot 
get the required mark or be promoted or win the teacher's 
approval, unless he deals with it ? , . . As a consequence of 
the absence of the materials and occupations which generate 
real problems, the pupil's problems are not his; or, rather 
they are his only as a pupil, not as a human being. ... A 



64 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

pupil has a problem, but it is the problem of meeting the 
peculiar requirements set by the teacher. His problem 
becomes that of finding out what the teacher wants, what 
will satisfy the teacher in recitation and examination and 
outward deportment. Eelationship to subject matter is no 
longer direct. The occasions and material of thought are 
not found in the arithmetic or the history or geography 
itself, but in skillfully adapting that material to the 
teacher's requirements." (John Dewey, Democracy and 
Education, pp. 182-4.*) 

The chief danger which is the outcome of teaching by 
methods of prescription and dictation lies in the type of 
mind and character it produces. It inevitably puts a 
premium upon docility and routine thinking, and discour- 
ages sturdy and independent thought. The results of this 
sort of training may be of a kind inimical to social progress. 
Minds habituated to passive acceptance of knowledge from 
those in positions of authority without subjecting it to the 
test of personal reflection or inquiry into its validity, may 
easily be persuaded into all sorts of false beliefs. Educa- 
tion proceeding by such methods is open to the danger of 
becoming a mere process of indoctrination, propagating 
error, and perpetuating prejudice. Instead it should be a 
great dynamic force devoted to dispelling illusions, and 
eradicating error, constantly extending the boundaries of 
tested knowledge, and thus consciously affecting social prog- 
ress. Children who are skilled in methods of experimental 
inquiry and proof, who are accustomed to examine into the 
nature of evidence, will have the power to discriminate be- 
tween sound knowledge and unfounded opinion and dog- 
matic belief. The greatest safeguard against the irrational 
tendencies always current in the social environment is the 
development of that attitude of mind known as scientific. 
Without such an equipment we are defenceless against the 
ideas that come down to us through tradition. "While it 
is not the business of education to prove every statement 
made, any more than to teach every possible item of infor- 
mation, it is its business to cultivate deep-seated and effect- 

*B7 permission The Maemillan Co, Copyright 1916. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 65 

ive habits of discriminating tested beliefs from mere asser- 
tions, guesses, and opinions; to develop a lively, sincere, 
and open-minded preference for conclusions that are prop- 
erly grounded, and to ingrain into the individual's working 
habits methods of inquiry and reasoning appropriate to the 
various problems that present themselves. No matter how 
much an individual knows as a matte:f of hearsay and 
information, if he has not attitudes and habits of this sort, 
he is not intellectually educated. He lacks the rudiments 
of mental discipline. And since these habits are not a gift 
of nature — ^no matter how strong the aptitude for acquiring 
them: since, moreover, the casual circumstances of the 
natural and social environment are not enough to compel 
their acquisition, the main office of education is to supply 
conditions that make for their cultivation. The formation 
of these habits is the Training of Mind." (John Dewey, 
How We Think, pp. 27-28.*) 

The primary educational importance 6f activities lies in 
the fact that offering as they do, innumerable opportunities 
for the solution of real problems by the methods of scien- 
tific inquiry and proof, they offer the most natural and 
direct means of training in that type of mind known as 
scientific. "One of the only two articles that remain in 
my creed of life is that the future of our civilization 
depends upon the widening spread and deepening hold of 
the scientific habit of mind: and that the problem of 
problems in our education is therefore to discover how 
to mature and make effective this scientific habit. Mankind 
so far has been ruled by things and by words, not by 
thought, for till the last few moments of history, humanity 
has not been in possession of the conditions of secure and 
effective thinking. . . . 

* * Scientific method is not just a method which it has been 
found profitable to pursue in this or that abstruse subject 
for purely technical reasons. It represents the only method 
of thinking that has proved fruitful in any subject — ^that is 
what we mean when we call it scientific. It is not a peculiar 
development of thinking for highly specialized ends; it 

*By permission D. C. Heath & Co. Copyright i910. 



66 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

is thinking so far as thought has become conscious of its 
proper ends and of the equipment indispensable for 
success in their pursuit. ... If ever we are to be gov- 
erned by intelligence, not by things and by words, 
science must have something to say about what we do, 
and not merely about liow we may do it most easily 
and economically. And if this consummation is achieved, 
the transformation must occur through education, by 
bringing home to men's habitual inclination and attitude 
the significance of genuine knowledge and the full import 
of the conditions requisite for its attainment. Actively to 
participate in the making of knowledge is the highest pre- 
rogative of man and the only warrant of his freedom." 
(John Dewey, Science as Subject Matter and as Method, 
Science, Jan. 28, 1910, p. 127.*) 

The organization of the school as a community, involving 
as it does frequent necessity for the adjustment of social 
relations similar to those occurring in the real world, pro- 
vides the best environment possible for the development of 
the scientific attitude in relation to social events and rela- 
tions. When social situations arise in a purely educative 
medium, it is possible as under no other circumstances to 
analyze them, to point out their weakness or strength — in 
short, to bring out their full educative value and gradually 
to build up a conception of social relations as they should 
be, and a consciously directed technique of cooperation. 
Children accustomed to respond in desirable ways to social 
situations during the formative period will have acquired 
modes of reaction of the greatest social value in later life. 
Such training will be of the greatest importance in bringing 
about that more conscious organization of society, so cru- 
cially needed, by which we order social changes, instead of 
undergoing change blindly. "A nation habituated to think 
in terms of problems and of the struggle to remedy them 
before it is actually in the grip of the forces which create 
the problems, would have an equipment for public life, 
such as has not characterized any people. ... Is there any 
meaning in the phrase 'democratic control' of social affairs 

*By permission The Science Press. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 67 

save as men have been educated into an intellectual famil- 
iarity with the weak places, the dark places, the unsettled 
difficulties of our society before they are overwhelmed by 
them practically?" (John Dewey, TJie ScJiools and Social 
Preparedness, New Republic, May, 1916, p. 16.) 

READING 

Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, Macmillan. 
Chap. XI. Experience and Thinking. 
Chap. XII. Thinking in Education. 
Chap. XXV. Theories of Knowledge. 
Dewey, John. — How We Think, Heath. 

, Chap. II. The Need for Training Thought. 
Chap. III. Natural Resources in the Training of 

Thought. 
Chap. V. The Means and End of Mental Train- 
ing. 
Chap. XII. Activity and the Training of Thought. 
Dewey, John. — Interest and Effort in Education, Hough- 
ton. 
Dewey, John. — Reasoning in Young Children, in Experi- 
mental Studies in Kindergarten Education, Teachers 
College Publication. 
Dewey, John. — The School and Society, University of 
Chicago Press. 

Chap. II. The School and the Life of the Child. 
Dewey, John. — Science as Subject Matter and as Method, 

Science, Jan. 28, 1910. 
Miller, I. E. — The Psychology of Thinking, Macmillan. 

Chap. VIII. Conditions and Function of Think- 
ing. 
Chap. XIII. Educational Applications and Illus- 
trations. 

The Organization of Activities 

When the fundamental psychological significance of 
activity is fully realized, the whole task of the school 
assumes a new aspect. Instead of being a problem in the 



68 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

organisation of suhjects of study, tJie hasic proUem of the 
school becomes the formulation of a program of activities. 
It resolves itself into discovering the characteristics of the 
impulse to activity at different periods of growth, and in 
arranging activities in accordance with the gradually ex- 
panding capacities of the growing child. From the educa- 
tional point of view, however, activity is not an end in 
itself. It is only the *nost potent because the most natural 
means. Childish activities are educationally important 
only in that they are significant indications of possible 
future experiences; their value is in the leverage they 
afford, not in the accomplishment they represent. The 
problem of the school becomes, therefore, the selection out 
of the countless possibilities for activity open to children, 
of such activities as will gradually adjust them to the social 
responsibilities of adult life, which will provide experiences 
developing social sensitiveness and control, and which will 
at the same time give skill in desirable techniques. 

Activity as Play 

Play has for a long time been considered a legitimate 
educational factor until the mystic age of six is reached. 
The conception of play here advocated sharply differen- 
tiates it, however, from the conventional kindergarten or 
Montessori philosophy, and demands a much broader and 
more extensive utilization of the play impulse in school. It 
demands also an entirely different treatment by the teacher 
and an entirely different play equipment. Groos's conclu- 
sion that the play impulse was developed through natural 
selection as a means of adapting the organism to its environ- 
ment, was a significant contribution to the theory of child- 
hood of profound importance to education. The admission 
of play into the school according to this point of view is a 
recognition of the general educational principle: that the 
natural processes of growth form the basis of the educative 
process; that the nascent instincts furnish the raw material 
of education. If we subscribe to this point of view in 
regard to play, it dictates the ends to be sought, and the 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 69 

procedure and the materials to be employed. Play is 
natural education because it is identical with the life 
process. The function of education is not to teach a child 
to play, but to provide opportunity for play. Educative 
play has its justification in the fact that through it the 
play development of the child is not left to chance influ- 
ences. The school provides an environment carefully 
thought out and consciously arranged to stimulate the 
natural growth of the organism. We must not forget that 
the play world is the real world to the child, and that it is 
by means of it that he interprets the real world, working 
out for himself the relationships in it and thus experiencing 
it. This philosophy of play determines the type to be 
undertaken. It must be creative, not dictated; always 
governed by the child's inner purposes. The great thing, 
educationally speaking, is to make the child conscious of the 
play possibilities in his own environment, to suggest relation- 
ships implicit in familiar experiences, to keep the play 
impulse going from stage to stage of related play, thus con- 
tinually expanding the boundaries of experience and deejy- 
ening its meaning. If education means the conscious 
direction of the native impulses of children into channels of 
greater social usefulness, it must lay hold of this great 
natural asset of childhood and utilize it to its fullest extent, 
making it the medium through which the child gains social 
experience. 

One's conception of play naturally influences the choice 
of play materials. The introduction of toys and playthings 
into school is an innovation looked upon with doubt; but 
if we grant the validity of the philosophy of play outlined, 
playthings take on a new meaning and follow as a matter 
of course. They are not a means of amusement, but the 
tools of childhood, and as such are worthy of a serious edu- 
cational consideration. You cannot expect a child, generous 
as is his attitude toward play materials, adaptable as he is 
in converting almost anything to his play uses, to express 
himself adequately without proper means of expression; 
even he cannot make bricks without straw. "We should pro- 
vide him with toys and blocks, dolls, clay, crayons, paper, 



70 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

and other play materials by which, he may reproduce his 
home, his father's shop, the neighborhood with its streets 
full of traffic, the docks, the factories, and all the wealth of 
detail that makes up the modern world. It is by means of 
his active relations with these play materials, that the child 
is thinking through the home and community processes 
which he sees going on about him. 

This point of view governs the choice of playthings, 
enabling us to discriminate between those which are edu- 
cative and those which are not. Since toys are the means 
by which the child reproduces his environment they should 
be thought of not as isolated units, but in groups, related to 
the environment to be duplicated, and to each other. Other- 
wise they remain separate objects, inert, like the half- 
assembled parts of a great machine, not the active agents 
for interpreting related sequences. Since the play impulse 
is active, not passive, the character of the toys should be 
such that activity does not reside in the toy but remains 
with the child. "The marvelous increase in the number 
and variety of children's toys is a subject worthy of more 
serious attention than it has yet received. Even a super- 
ficial observation of these toys indicates that many of them 
are of such a character as to leave the child comparatively 
passive. The activity is handed over to a mechanism. The 
child gets his emotional excitement without regard to its 
legitimate expenditure. The balance between the sensory 
and motor nerves is destroyed, the organic circuit is broken, 
the tendency to rely on an external stimulus is fostered. 
The mere fact that the stimulus calls for so little motor 
response is sufficient to explain its temporary effect and 
the constant demand for some new means of stimulation. 
Could parents and teachers take even a few minutes a day 
or a few hours a week to help children to see the possibilities 
in a pile of sand, an unoccupied piece of ground, the tough 
grasses and woody fibers growing in the waste places, a 
neighboring tree, dry-goods boxes, paper and paste, in short 
in any of the legitimate materials in the environment of the 
child, there would be a saving of time for adults and a more 
normal and happy growth in the child. Such conditions 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 71 

would afford a normal outlet for the constructive instincts, 
which need nutrition at this period. ..." (K. E. Dopp, TTie 
Place of Industries in Elementary Education, pp. 107- 
108.*) As Miss Dopp points out, we must use discrimination 
not only in the type of toys selected, but in the number. 
The young child should not be overwhelmed by the com- 
plexity of the play environment provided. It must bear 
some relation to his present needs and it must be suggestive 
enough to link the child's narrow personal concerns with 
those of the great world. There should be just enough play 
material to act as a stimulus in initiating play. When once 
the play is under way more playthings can be supplied to 
keep it going, or, even better, the children may be en- 
couraged to add to their nucleus of playthings by making 
their own. Such activity is valuable in exercising the 
children's inventive powers, in making use of materials at 
hand to satisfy their expanding needs. 

EEADING 

Chambers, Smith and Others. — Report of tlie Experi- 
mental Work in the ScJiool of Childhood^ University of 
Pittsburgh Bulletin, 1916. 
Cook, H. C.—The Play Way, Stokes. 

Chap. I. General Principles of the Play Way. 
Chap. II. General Method of the Play Way. 
Chap. VI. Play Town. 
Deming, Hunt and Others. — Bureau of Educational Ex- 
periments Publications. 

Bulletin I, PlaytJiings. 
Bulletin III. The Play School. 
Bulletin IV. The Children's School, Teacher's 
College Play Ground, The Greg- 
ory School. 
Bulletin V. The Stony Ford School, The Home 

School. 
Bulletin VIII. A Catalogue of Play Equipment. 

*By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1902 by 
The University of Chicago. 



72 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, Maemillan. 
Chap. XV. Play and Work in the Curriculum. 
Dewey, John. — How We Think, Heath. 

Chap. XII. Section 2, Play, Work, and Allied 

Forms of Activity. 
Chap. XVI. Section 2, Process and Product. 
Dewey, John. — Interest and Effort in Education, Hough- 
ton. 

Chap. IV. Types of Educative Interest. 
Dewey, John and Evelyn. — Schools of To-morrow, Dut- 
to^. 

Chap. V. Play. 
Hall, G. Stanley. — Aspects of Cliild Life, Ginn. 

The Story of a Sand Pile. 
Hetherington, C. W. — The Demonstration Play School of 

1913, University of California Bulletin, 1914. 
Hill, Patty Smith and Others. — Experimental Studies in 
Kindergarten Education, Teachers College Publication. 
KiLPATRiCK, W. H. — The Montessori System Examined, 

Houghton. 
KiLPATRiCK, W. H. — FroeheVs Kindergarten Principles 

Critically Examined, Maemillan. 
Lee, Joseph. — Play in Education, Maemillan. 
Murray and Brown. — The Child Under Eight, Longmans. 
Pratt, C. L. — The Real Joy in Toys, in ''Parents and Their 
Problems, ' ' National Congress of Mothers, Washington, 
D. C. 
Wells, H. G. — Floor Games, Small, Maynard. 
Wood, Walter. — Children's Play and Its Place in Educa- 
tion, Duffield. 

The aim of schools for young children then should be to 
provide a center rich in possibilities for play, in which all 
the desirable tendencies of child life may find legitimate 
satisfaction. The fundamental question to be answered is : 
what constitutes an all round opportunity for play? Fol- 
lowing are some of the more important types of a(?tivity in 
which children naturally engage, which should be provided 
for in the school plan. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 73 

Dramatic Activities. — Dramatic activities should occupy 
a most important place in our conception of educative play, 
because it is by means of them that children interpret con- 
duct and social action. The school environment should 
therefore offer ample opportunity for a broad range of 
dramatizations of social situations. The early plays of chil- 
dren are usually domestic in character, since dramatization 
requires related information, and the nucleus of the child's 
early stock of related information is in connection with 
home life. These home plays are especially suited to young 
children for several reasons. Eepresentations of home life 
with its setting and the occupations carried on in the home 
are simple enough to allow children to see situations as 
wholes, and as they do not make great demand upon tech- 
nique, they allow even young children to realize their pur- 
poses. They therefore give desirable reflexes in allowing 
children to feel at each stage of the process the emotional 
glow which accompanies the mastery of a new power. They 
provide sufficient variety to give continual diversity to 
action, and thus permit that ready shift of attention char- 
acteristic of the play of young children, yet they have an 
underlying unity which gives a sense of organization, and 
affords opportunity for disclosing relationships as emphasis 
passes from one phase to another. They make possible par- 
ticipation in a great variety of processes, and introduce 
children to the purposeful use of a great variety of ma- 
terials. In the course of these dramatic representations 
more and more related information can be attached, and 
experience thus deepened and broadened. The home plays 
develop naturally, with increasing ability and knowledge, 
into plays reproducing all kinds of industrial and social 
situations. By extending the child's experience we give 
him more material for his dramatic purposes. Dramatic 
plays are therefore closely related to investigation and 
experimentation. Altogether the admission of this sort of 
plays into the school plan seems to be justified by the fact 
that it provides for the union of so many valuable edu- 
cative factors. 



74. THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 



READING 

Dewey, John. — Tlie School and Society, University of 
Chicago Press. 

Chap. V. Froebel's Educational Principles. 

Investigation and Experimentation. — The two most im- 
portant ways in which man has learned the secrets of the 
universe are by means of discovery and experiment. The 
child learns about his world by the same methods. It is 
important, therefore, to open up these two great avenues of 
knowledge in the play-life of children. Before entering 
school, children have learned a great deal by this method. 
The world of man and nature is new and presents vast 
opportunities for investigation. For young children life 
consists in a series of delightful experiments, the world is an 
unending field for adventure. The great task of the school 
is to preserve and perfect the eager explorative nature of 
childhood, by providing wider and more consciously ar- 
ranged opportunities than the child could get outside of 
school. Since dramatic plays are dependent for their 
development upon an increase of related information and a 
free and ready use of materials they give point and con- 
tinuity to related activities such as excursions and experi- 
mentation. The need for greater information to complete 
a play scheme necessitates an excursion into the neighbor- 
hood to see the real thing in operation, or the need for some 
plaything makes necessary its construction out of materials 
at hand. "Whenever the completion of a situation requires 
the child to explore his environment for illustrative ma- 
terial or necessitates the conversion of materials into forms 
more adequately satisfying his purposes, the impulses to 
investigate and experiment are functioning on a high edu- 
cative level. 

In the school plan, therefore, excursions and trips will 
play a far more vital part than they now do in school life. 
At present they are too often regarded as interruptions of 
the "regular work" and time begrudgingly provided for 
them. Here they are seen to be fundamental to the exten- 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 75 

sion of experience and to introducing the child, through 
personal contact, into the social and physical world in which 
he is ultimately to play his part. The purpose of these 
excursions should be to reveal to the children the motivating 
forces, and the processes of social and natural phenomena. 
We cannot know life by second-hand methods, by reading 
or talking about it. The facts of life are all around us; to 
understand them the child must see them in their natural 
setting. Through the organization of definite trips of ex- 
ploration the school can greatly multiply children's points 
of contact with the world. Trips and excursions are the 
threads that interlace between the school and life outside, 
connecting the two as the children mature by an ever in- 
creasing network. By this means the neighborhood grad- 
ually becomes the child's social laboratory. The city child 
comes to learn at first-hand how his small concerns are 
linked up wdth the great humming life of the city around 
him ; the country child may make some important economic 
deductions about the sources of the raw materials supplying 
the great world with the wherewithal to do its work and 
keep itself going. Excursions for each sort of child should 
include not only those into the nearby neighborhood, but 
longer trips — for the country child into the nearest town, 
and vice versa for the city child. It might be possible to 
follow a commodity from its source to its destination and 
thus give a realization of the mutual interdependence of 
city and country. These trips, then, will be undertaken 
with definite purpose, and will include a great variety of 
places — excursions to museums, to industrial and commer- 
cial plants, to docks and harbors, to historic places, to 
farms, and so on. These countless related new experiences 
will form the basis of the children's understanding and 
appreciation of the world and all its marvelous industries 
and institutions. On the way will be assimilated a vast 
store of information about the essentials of social life, which 
will afterward no doubt find its expression in the dramatic 
and constructive activities of the school. 

"We must utilize to the fullest extent not only children's 
natural curiosity about the world in which they live, but 



76 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

also their natural love of tinkering and doing tilings. Far 
from being mere idle fooling, as it is so often thought to be, 
this playful manipulation is fraught with the greatest edu- 
cational possibilities. It was by means of playing with a 
kite that Franklin made a valuable contribution to the 
application of electricity ; it was through watching a falling 
apple that Newton was able to make important deductions 
regarding the force of gravity. Young children should be 
given every opportunity to try out their ideas, to handle 
materials, to see what can be done with tools and machines, 
to indulge in the playful manipulation of toys and appli- 
ances involving mechanical principles. With increase of 
ability this manipulating instinct will gradually expand 
into more complicated activities with wood, with plastic 
materials, with textiles and the like. Children should be 
allowed to keep pets and thus observe them in their natural 
habitat. They should be given opportunity to grow plants 
in gardens and thus by experimentation to learn the condi- 
tions of growth. In the natural desire of young children to 
handle things and see what will happen we have the crude 
basis for the development of experimental science. From 
interest in seeing what happens under certain circum- 
stances to arranging conditions so that certain results will 
follow is but a step. If this interest develops so that the 
conditions are intentionally varied, and a purposeful effort 
is thus made to find out what conditions are present when 
the effect occurs, and absent when it does not occur, a 
principle can be enunciated, and we have the constituents 
of a scientific experiment. By developing activities in this 
way, we use every-day experiences to introduce children into 
those methods of discovery and verification which are the 
chief resource of scientific reasoning. 

EEADING 

Dewey, John. — Science as Subject Matter and as Method. 

Science, Jan. 28, 1910. 
Dewey, John. — ^Article .on the Logic of Experimentation. 

Cyclopaedia of Education. Macmillan- 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 77 

Dewey, John. — The School and Society. University of 

Chicago Press. 

Chap. II. The School and the Life of the Child. 
Edwards, C. L. — Nature Play. Popular Science Monthly, 

April, 1914. 
Gaerett, L. B. — Study ^ of Animal Families in Schools. 

Bureau of Educational Experiments, Bulletin No. 2. 

Art Activities. — The art impulse lies very close to the 
play impulse; it is activity indulged in for its own sake, 
not under the pressure of supplying material needs. In- 
deed it finds expression usually only in the leisure that 
results when material needs have been satisfied. The effort 
of the self is always to enlarge itself through expression. 
Whenever man transcends the bounds of ordinary experi- 
ence he instinctively attempts to perpetuate his images in 
satisfying form through creative activity. The product, 
however crude it may be, inevitably takes on certain art 
qualities such as balance, rhythm, harmony and the like. 
It is because the art impulse and the play impulse are 
kin that it is possible in school to develop the natural 
activities of children into forms having significant art 
values. *'Play as work, as freely productive activity, in- 
dustry as leisure, that is, as occupation which fills the im- 
agination and the emotions as well as the hands, is the 
essence of art. Art is not an outer product nor an outer 
behavior. It is an attitude of spirit, a state of mind — one 
which demands for its satisfaction and fulfilling a shaping 
of matter to new and more significant form. To feel 
the meaning of what one is doing and to rejoice in that 
meaning, to unite in one concurrent fact the unfolding of 
the inner life and the ordered development of material con- 
ditions — ^that is art. The external signs — rhythm, sym- 
metry, arrangement of values, what you please — these 
things are signs of art in the degree in which they exhibit 
the union of inner joyful thought and outward control of 
nature 's forces. Otherwise they are dead and mechanical. ' ' 
(John Dewey, Culture and Industry in Education, Educa- 
tional Bi-monthly, Oct. 1, 1906, p. 8.*) 

*By permission Chicago Normal College. 



78 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

This description of the art impulse should serve to give 
a more fundamental conception of the purpose of art than 
is evident in the work of many schools, and to give a clue 
to the methods by which the vital connection between art 
and life may be made evident to children. "We must set the 
school conditions so that the growth of artistic production, 
is possible. If children are given experiences that kindle 
their imagination and stir their emotions, they will spon- 
taneously express themselves in forms objectifying their 
images. These productions, crude though they be, will be 
found to have art value. The free creative tendencies of 
children released in channels of satisfying achievement, 
should therefore form the basis of instruction in art. De- 
velopment in art may be looked upon as play, under the 
principle of order becoming conscious of itself. 

It may be thought that since most children are to become 
appreciators rather than creators of art, that appreciation 
might be developed through more direct methods. But it is 
particularly true of children, that it is only through per- 
sonal experience that they can appreciate the recorded ex- 
periences of others; in other words, that appreciation fol- 
lows experience. It is only hy taking part in creative pro- 
ductions, not for the sake of producing beauty, hut as a 
means of expressing significant feelings, that a vigorous 
and wholesome appreciation of art can he huilt. In de- 
veloping the art spirit the appreciation of traditional works 
of art is important, but the greatest care should be exer- 
cised in their use, since they are specific responses to situa- 
tions quite different from the situation in which the child 
finds himself. "Wherever they can be used, however, as a 
means of enabling the child to assess his own production, or 
as a stimulus to further personal expression, their use is 
justified and valuable. 

This point of view indicates also the use and value of 
instruction in technique in art. Technique should be intro- 
duced as needed as a stimulus to improving expression. As 
each step in technique means so much inhibition it is 
dangerous to set up these boundaries before ideas have an 
opportunity to originate and mature. Professor Dewey has 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 79 

made such a significant analysis of the psychology of art 
production that it is incorporated here almost in full, and 
is intended to supply the point of view not only for drawing, 
with which it specifically deals, but with music, dancing, 
and all other art forms. 

**It is obvious that the teaching of artistic expression 
will start along the lines of least resistance, and be effective 
as to both external output and as to the educator of the 
individual pupil just in the degree in which it bases itself 
upon the psychical impulse which furnishes the motive to 
expression. But something more is required than a right 
start. If the education is to be effective, this impulse must 
be directed, must be utilized to the fuU. . . . "We have 
plenty of glorification of art, and of the importance of 
artistic training, but we have almost no definite scientific 
attempts to translate the artistic process over into terms 
of its psychical machinery — ^that is, of the mental processes 
which occasion and which effect such expression. In enter- 
ing upon the attempt to make such a translation I shall 
select as basis of the discussion, for reasons that require no 
explanation, drawing as the type of artistic expression. 

'*We may begin our analysis with the familiar distinction 
of idea and technique. Every mode of expression, no matter 
how mechanical, no matter how fantastic, how impression- 
istic, has these two sides. The architect's drawing of the 
plan of a house, the engineer's working plan for the con- 
struction of a machine must have an idea to be expressed, 
or else any series of lines drawn with a ruler would serve 
as well. And the crudest attempt of a child to illustrate 
*Hickory-Dickory-Dock' has also its technique* — ^its mode 
of realization. It is also clear that in this process of expres- 
sion the primary function belongs to the idea, the secondary 
to the technique ; they are related as content and form, as 
material to be conveyed and delivered and as mode of con- 
veyance, as what and as how. But lest this statement should 
be misinterpreted, as it seems to me it often is misinter- 
preted, it must be added that to say that one is final and 

*This is to be interpreted in the light of the distinction hereafter 
made between unconscions and conscious technique. 



80 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

the other subservient, one is end, the other means, does not 
of necessity mean that attention is to be concentrated upon 
the one and the other is to be neglected. What we derive 
from this statement of the subservience of technique to idea 
is not a criterion for the amount of attention to be given 
to each, but a criterion for the reason of directing attention 
to one or the other ; we get a motive for attending. If one 
is thoroughly interested in the idea as something to be 
expressed, he must, on that account, be interested in the 
mode of expression. An insufficient interest in the form or 
process always marks something crude, hazy, or unreal in 
the content. We must be interested in the expression just 
in proportion to the intensity, the controlling character of 
our interest in the idea. But, on the other hand, this inter- 
est in the idea, in the story to be told, the thought to be 
realized, is the only basis for an artistic interest in the tech- 
nique. A mode of expression separated from something to 
express is empty and artificial ; it is barren, and benumbing. 
' ' I make this point at the outset because it seems to me to 
define both the practical and the theoretical problem of 
drawing instruction. It is comparatively simple to abstract 
the technique, to make command of certain tools, physical 
and mental, the end and aim; it is comparatively easy to 
start from the image, the story, and allow that to find its 
own unaided outlet, and under claim of the superiority of 
idea to technique, allow not simply a crude and unformed 
result to pass — that is a matter of no importance in itself — 
but to encourage crude and slovenly habits of expression to 
grow up — ^which is an exceedingly important matter. The 
via media which is such a difficult path to find — the straight 
and narrow path which makes for artistic righteousness — 
goes in neither of these directions, but attempts on the one 
hand to make the interest in the idea, the vital image to 
extend itself to the mode of conveyance, to make the entire 
interest in technique a functional not an isolated one, 
while on the other it recognizes the necessity of having the 
mode of expression react back into the idea, to make it less 
cloudy, more definite, less haphazard, more accurate, less 
the product of the momentary, undeveloped interest and 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 81 

thought, more the outcome of mature reflection and com- 
prehensive interest. 

' ' So much for our practical problem in general. Now for 
its psychological equivalence- "What corresponds to idea, 
what corresponds to technique in the natural psychical 
process; how are these related to each other; how do they 
interact in a mutally helpful way ? We cannot accept one 
apparently simple way of answering this question. "We 
cannot say that the idea is imaginative, is spiritual ; while 
what corresponds to the technique is physical, mechanical. 
The simplicity of this answer is at the cost of reality. The 
mental occurrence which represents the form or mode of 
expression is just as much an image as is the idea itself. It 
is not the problem of the relation of a spiritual image to a 
physical organ of expression, but of one sort of imagery to 
another. And while this is perhaps an unusual putting of 
the matter, we must recognize that after all it is because 
the whole process is on© of imagery that the problem is a 
soluble one in an educative sense. If one side, the idea, 
were alone a matter of the imagination, and the technique 
were simply a matter of delicate and accurate physical 
control of the eye and muscle, we could never get a genuine 
harmonizing of the two factors in the problem; we should 
be compelled simply to alternate from one side to the other 
or to make the best compromise we could. 

"In saying that the side of technique is itself a matter 
of imagery, I refer to what the psychologists term motor 
imagery, and to the well-known fact that imagery of all 
kinds has a tendency to overflow in the motor channels, and 
that thus there is a tendency to reproduce through action 
and experience, or to put forth in expression whatever has 
been gained in impression and assimilated into an idea. I 
refer, moreover, to the fact that such motor expression is not 
something done with an idea already made in the mind, but 
is necessary to the appreciation of the idea itself. If there 
is one principle more than another upon which -all educa- 
tional practice, not simply education in art, must base itself 
it is precisely this: the realization of an idea in action 
through the medium of movement is necessary to the vivid- 



82 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

ness, the definiteness, the fuUness of that idea itself. "We 
cannot speak of an idea and its expression; the expression 
is more than a mode of conveying an already formed idea ; 
it is part and parcel of its formation. The so-called mechan- 
ical phase is necessary to the integrity of the spiritual. 
Education, like philosophy, has suffered from the idea that 
thought is complete in itself, and that action, the expression 
of thought, is a physical thing. We are learning to know 
that thought is thought only in and through action. 

"Here we have the natural psychical origin of drawing, 
as well as of all other forms of expression. There is a nat- 
ural tendency for every image to pass into movement; an 
inert image, an image which does not tend to manifest itself 
through the medium of action is a non-existence. In later 
life, we have learned to suppress so many suggestions to 
action, and have learned to delay the expression of so many 
others, that this fundamental law has become somewhat 
obscured, but a study of child-life and growth reveals it in 
its purity and intensity, and reveals also that the suppres- 
sion of manifestation of an image or delay in its passage 
into action is an acquired habit, a later acquisition. In the 
early period, the tendency of every image to secure realiza- 
tion for itself in the medium of action is witnessed in play 
and in the incessantly urgent desire of the child for con- 
versation; his impulse to tell everything, to communi- 
cate. ... In all these earlier reproductive activities it is 
clear that there are not two sides to the child, an image and 
its expression ; the image is only its expression, the expres- 
sion is only the image moving, vitalizing itself. The tech- 
nique is unconscious ; it has no separate value in censcious- 
ness. There is no interest in the Jioiv, distinct from the 
wJiat. ... 

**. . . the unconsciousness of technique or the lack of 
any consciousness of the mode of doing, apart from what is 
being done, and the complete absorption of the agent in his 
action, we must take with us to the consideration of the 
beginnings of instruction in artistic expression of a more 
formal kind than is play. Drawing as a development of 
play marks, however, a growing inhibition or control. The 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 83 

wliole image at first moves in the whole organ by the prin- 
ciple of radiation or expansion. Drawing marks the limita- 
tion to certain channels; moreover it is directed more im- 
mediately by the eye image, not the experience as a whole ; it 
marks therefore, relatively an analysis. . . . Drawings then 
at first are means of reinforcing and continuing some inter- 
esting life experience of the child, through giving it back 
to the eye by means of the hand. The start must be 
imaginative, not simply ought to be. Even in drawing 
objects the child will draw from his image, not from 
the object itself. There is no road from the object to 
the child's motor nerves and hand, but only from his mental 
picture of the object. The use of the object must be there- 
fore simple to help the construction of the image ; anything 
else merely creates dependence upon the external. It not 
only leads to servility, but by disintegrating imagery makes 
the product mechanical. Moreover, the child is interested in 
objects simply from the standpoint of the part they play 
in his life, their use, the value they have for him, not as 
objects, but as factors in some life scene. Thus objects at 
first are seen, not so much in terms of their visual appear- 
ance as in terms of touch, because touch represents more 
adequately the immediate experience values of the object, 
what can be done directly with it, while sight represents 
more indirect, and as it were symbolic values. ... It is on 
this account that the picture, judged as itself an object, is 
so crude. It lacks proportion, definiteness of spacial form 
and structure. The child is unconscious of all these defects, 
because he sees not the mere external product before him, 
but the whole mental picture which interests and holds him. 
' ' Correction of this crudity, perfection of the picture con- 
sidered as an object means the gradual development of con- 
scious technique — the power of seeing the picture produced 
by itself as it is to the eye, not simply as it is to the whole 
of experience ; and the power to control the movements of 
the hand and eye by this visual picture as a standard. This 
involves a certain separation and abstraction. The eye 
activities and their resulting values, have to be set free from 
their close unification with the sense of touch. A new 



84 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

language, the visual language lias to be substituted for tHe 
visual-touch-action language. 

''Psychologically what takes place is a return upon an 
experience to see how it occurs, and the reconstruction of, 
that experience, the making it over on the basis of the 
method thus brought to consciousness. The uniform law 
is, first the doing ; then the consciousness of the how of doing ; 
then the return of this mode into the experience to enrich 
and develop it, a fuller, more interesting doing. 

'^ Hence we may lay down with practical psychological 
certainty the following principles regarding the relation 
of technique to pictorial image in drawing instruction. The 
beginning must always be with some imaginative free ex- 
pression in which both the experience represented and the 
process of expression have their own adequate value to the 
child. . . . Every gain in technique must be at once utilized 
for a further and richer imaginative expression. 

"It is with reference to these principles that current 
methods of instruction in drawing would receive most 
criticism from the psychologist. It is perhaps natural that 
the drawing teacher, the author of text-books should be most 
interested in the production of a good picture, viewed from 
the standpoint of results or the object as an object, and 
hence should isolate the technique, or method of reaching 
such good external products, fixing his attention upon that 
to the comparative neglect of the psychical condition of the 
pupil, or to the conditions which will give free play of 
imagery. But those who are interested in drawing, not as 
an end in itself, but because of its place in education as a 
whole, must insist upon the proper psychological correlation . 
of this study; must insist upon the function of technique, 
as subordinate to imaginative expression, and as effecting 
the transition from one such expression to another. 

"The following means of developing technique in its 
proper place may be indicated. First, foremost and all 
the time: Incidental criticism of products of imaginative 
expression. The crude picture does not adequately repre- 
sent the child's own image. It comes far short in some 
directions ; it distorts in others. Questions and suggestions 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 85 

will bring the child to realize the discrepancy between what 
he meant to do, and what he has actually done. This makes 
him turn around upon his image, reflect upon it, define it 
more accurately, and make him alert for the differences 
between false and adequate expression. When the child 
comes to have the habit of looking at his own products, of 
comparing them with his original image and of criticizing 
one by reference to the other (without being unduly dis- 
couraged and thus paralyzed) the battle for technique is, in 
principle, won. . . . The crying evil is the abstraction of 
the technique, making it in reality only a means toward the 
true end — ^free expression — an end in itself." (John 
Dewey, Imagination and Expression, Kindergarten Maga- 
zine, September, 1896, pp. 61-69.*) 

EEADI]SrG 

CusHMAN, L. — Principles of Education as Applied to Art. 
Elementary School Eecord No. 1, University of Chicago 
Press. 

Dewey, John. — ^Article on Art in Education. Encyclo- 
pasdia of Education. Macmillan. 

Dewey, John. — Imagination and Expression. Kindergar- 
ten Magazine, September, 1896. 

Dewey, John. — Culture and Industry in Education. Edu- 
cational Bi-monthly, October 1, 1906. 

Eggers, G. W. — Design in tlie Industrial Arts. Educational 
Bi-monthly, October 1, 1910. 

Rhythmic and Musical Activities. — ^Young children enjoy 
activities which seem to have no other reflex than the pleas- 
ure which comes from the exercise of the muscles. This 
pleasure often expresses itseK naturally in bodily rhythms 
such as hopping, skipping, marching, and so on. The aim 
of work in music is to stimulate these natural rhythmic 
activities, so as to convert them into art forms governed by 
order or regularity. Rhythm, in the art sense, is not to be 
thought of as a mere mechanical regularity; it is the outer 

*By permission Kindergarten-Primary Magazine. 



86 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

expression of an inner control, which, by some subtle recog- 
nition of proportion, expresses itself in rhythmic cadences. 
In the development of musical appreciation then, music 
used as a stimulus to activity should precede the passive 
form of enjoyment which comes through listening to music. 
The free rhythmic responses of the whole body will grad- 
ually develop into various dance forms. If children are 
simply stimulated by various musical rhythms which appeal 
to them, and are encouraged to respond in the manner most 
natural to them, they evolve a variety of original and grace- 
ful rhythms. The type of music chosen for this initial work 
should be simple, of strongly marked and suggestive 
rhythms, presenting strong contrasts. For this reason folk 
music is especially valuable, since it is free from the subtle- 
ties of melody and rhythm characteristic of much of the 
modern music. Vocal rhythms may also be developed into 
chants, songs and the rhythmic recitation of poetry. An- 
other provision for active response to musical rhythms, 
requiring more control than the bodily rhythms, is the 
accompaniment of the piano or other musical instruments 
by instruments of percussion such as drums, cymbals, cas- 
tanets, and simple toy musical instruments. As children 
progress in rhythmic ability, it is possible to develop a toy 
orchestra of real musical value. In music work developed 
along these lines technique will be supplied as it is needed 
for the proper advancement of musical ability; the tech- 
nique is developed out of the subject, instead of the music 
out of the technique, as is so frequently the case in music 
study. As the children are encouraged to express their 
thoughts and feelings freely in musical form in the course 
of the work many original songs and dances should emerge. 
This free expression of musical experiences by move- 
ments, and the composing of dances and songs, makes a safe 
foundation for ear training of a more detailed and delib- 
erate character. By means of it children may be led con- 
sciously to listen with enjoyment to what a composer has 
written, to understand and appreciate it, and finally into 
the analytic study of music. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 87 

READING 

Hall, G. Stanley. — The Psychology of Music. Addresses 
and Proceedings of the National Education Associa- 
tion, 1908. 

Hayward, F. H. — The Lesson in Appreciation. Maemillan. 

Kern, M. R. — Elementary Music Teaching in the Lahoror- 
tory School II. Elementary School Teacher, Septem- 
ber, 1903. 

ICern, M, R. — Song Composition. Elementary School Rec- 
ord, No. 2. 

MacPherson, Stewart, and Read, Ernest. — Aural Cul- 
ture Based upon Musical Appreciation. Part I, Ap- 
pendix. Boston Music Co. 

The School Festival. — The sense of the social value of art 
should be restored by the school. Any group activity of a 
joyous character celebrating some event or fact of common 
value is the natural soil of artistic creation. A significant 
characteristic of the arts in their earlier form was the 
predominance of the festal element. Tribal episodes or 
traditions were perpetuated by community celebrations in 
which music, poetry, the dance and dramatic representation 
were appropriately united. Our holiday celebrations are 
pitiful survivals of these tribal celebrations in a modern 
work-a-day world which has forgotten the intimate connec- 
tion between play and art. In school we should restore the 
festal element to art. Festal celebrations of holidays 
worked out as group projects, and embodying in some con- 
crete form the common expression of the group, and ex- 
pressed in a form appealing to the group as a whole, might 
do much to restore a sense of the art value to the barren, 
unimaginative celebrations by which we at present mark 
our festal days. "What we have failed to recognize ade- 
quately in our education is just this educative power of 
joy. And what we lack in our schools we lack also in our 
life — ^the joy of refined and edifying leisure activities; such 
joy as was expressed in the folk festivals of the past through 
folk song, folk dance, folk drama, and folk ritual ; such joy 
as expresses itself for the little child in the folk play of the 



88 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

nursery, with, its incomparable charm and gaiety in song, 
dance, drama, and ceremonial. These are perishing to- 
gether. Unless the school and the public playground, the 
settlement and recreation center, can restore this joy of self- 
activity and ingenious play, there is little prospect that it 
will be restored to us in any other way. ... 

' ' This defect in our school life, as in our social life, that 
it communicates no quickening sense of the poetry and 
adventurousness of life, is inseparably bound up with its 
neglect of the emotions. Our education runs to brain and 
starves the feelings; true, it strives more and more to in- 
volve the hand in the educational process ; but it slights the 
heart, the imagination, and the creative and dramatic 
nature of the child. These, too, must be nurtured by 
* doing,' by calling into activity the natural impulses out 
of which play and art have developed in the past. . . . 

* ' Is it too much to hope that, after two hundred and fifty 
years of overwork, which have left their deep furrows of 
joylessness and premature age upon so many of our native-, 
born people in town and country — and especially upon the 
farmer folk of the country — the American people may be 
rejuvenated by a return to the slighted arts of play? We 
may explain and excuse our lapse from virtue in this 
respect; but we cannot and must not allow it to continue, 
for it precludes our humanization. "We may wish to speak 
a word of apology for the harsh Puritanism which spread 
its blight over innocent amusements and banished the Yule- 
log and the May-pole; we may also plead excuse for our- 
selves by magnifying the vast, grim task to which we have 
had to put our hands ; the task of taming and clearing an 
immense continent, making its roads and bridges, its tun- 
nels and canals, its homesteads and cities, and of caring for 
its ceaseless procession of immigrants. Very well; but we 
must face frankly some of the actual consequences of these 
many decades of sobering toil. One consequence is that a 
great, perhaps the greater, number of our people are in- 
capable of fruitful leisure, and bankrupt of the recreative, 
restorative activities of leisure. Visit a church sociable 
when the good townspeople sit helplessly around; visit a 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 89 

children's party where the little ones wait restlessly for the 
ice-cream and cake ; visit a Fourth of July picnic, or roam 
the streets of a town in the evening of Labor Day, Election 
Day, or (lowest depth of all) New Year's Eve, and what a 
pitiful spectacle of recreational ineptitude we have to 
reckon with ! 

"It is high time to recognize that under the tyranny of 
industrial forces which we have not learned to control to 
reasonable human service, and under the temptation to 
devote ourselves to the feverish accumulation of money, we 
have forsaken the fairer paths of human culture. "We must 
return. "We must recover for ourselves the lost aptitudes 
of the humanizing arts of life, the song and balladry, the 
mumming and minstrelsy, the dancing and revelry, the 
ritual and pageantry, which through the ages, until we 
yoked ourselves to the steam juggernaut of factory indus- 
try, were sources of life and health and growth to the peoples 
and the folk of the world, and have left a rich heritage of 
folk art which has been fast perishing. ..." (P. Chubb, 
Festivals and Plays, Introduction, pp. xix-xxii.*) 

"The festival becomes a means of moral education 
through its promotion of what may be called the three 
pieties, or three forms of reverence, to which it may make 
appeal. The first of these we may name natural piety, 
meaning thereby a feeling for the ordered and rhythmical 
life of nature, that sense of universal and cosmic law ruling 
our lives which is hinted at in the largest way by the 
sequence of seasons, the life and death and rebirth of the 
Power behind our human life. This should carry with it 
a sense of our human dependence upon the majestic laws 
which rule Nature, reinforced by the admiring and wonder- 
ing sense of the beauty and bounty of the earth as an 
expression of this life and law. It is in this natural piety 
that the great historic festivals of the past had their origin ; 
and in such expressions of it as are to be found in the lovely 
story of Demeter and Persephone we have a classic theme 
which is still fresh and pertinent, the poetic appeal of 
which can scarcely be exhausted by festival uses. 

*By permission Harper & Bros. Copyright 1912. 



90 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

''Passing from this to the second form of piety, whif'.h we 
may call human piety, we have a form of moral emotion 
which is still rudimentary in its development. By this 
human piety is meant primarily man's sense of his 
indebtedness to man in the past, begotten in him by a 
recognition of the great drama of man's slow, painful, and 
baffled efforts to advance in the conquest not only of nature, 
but of truth and justice. It is the idea which should be 
the underlying conception in our teaching of history, which 
to be fruitful in its influence must be conceived of as a great 
epic of human progress. . . . 

"Thirdly, we have what may be distinguished from 
human piety in general as institutional piety — that is to 
Say, intelligent reverence for the means whereby man has 
expressed his social nature in the institutions, customs, and 
laws of civilized life." (P. Chubb, Festivals and Plays, 
pp. 17-19.*) 

The differentiation of the arts into special forms — paint- 
ing, music, dancing, sculpture and the like — ^has tended to 
make of them mere accomplishments, useful in social life 
only in special and isolated instances. The union of the 
arts in a common social purpose would do much to restore 
appreciation of the arts as a wholesome and invigorating 
force in elevating social life. One of the baleful effects upon 
art of our modern industrial period has been the separation 
in thought between the useful and the beautiful, whereby 
the useful has become debased to the level of the vulgar, 
and the beautiful has been synonymous with the useless. 
Festal celebrations affording as they do opportunity for 
constructive work of various kinds in connection with an 
art production — ^the making of costumes, of scenery and the 
like, offer a valuable illustration of the essential union of 
the useful and the beautiful. Such a union gives vitality 
to the art work and depth and richness to the other work 
involved. Altogether the festival represents an opportunity 
for associative action on the highest level, combining as it 
may significant historical, social, and art values. 

*By permission Harper & Bros. Copyright 1913. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 91 

READING 

Brown, G. Baldwin. — The Fine Arts. Scribner. 
Chubb, Percival. — Festivals and Plays. Harper. 

To recapitulate — -the value of art for education lies 
fundamentally not in facility in various techniques, but in 
the fact that children through significant experiences which 
find their satisfaction in a variety of expressions, get a 
sense of the ideal characteristics of art — ^balance, harmony, 
rhythm — as factors in life. If children are to get a sense 
of art in its relation to life they must experience it in as 
many ways as possible — ^through creating songs, plays, 
poems, stories and dances. If all of these activities are 
frequently gathered up in the joyous celebration of some 
event of value to the children, we have work undertaken in 
the spirit of play, and play animated by the spirit of art. 

Linguistic Activities. — The horizon of personal experi- 
ence is narrow and most of the world lies beyond it. Since 
a large part of our experience has to be got vicariously from 
the reports of others, the means by which the experience of 
each person can be made to contribute to that of every other 
becomes of vital importance to education. Language, as we 
have seen, is social in its origin and is an important factor 
in developing social life. We cannot imagine a clearly- 
articulated social order without language. Under the tra- 
ditional school regime the ordinary means of language 
development is by means of the recitation. When the 
recitation consists in the testimony of memorized facts in 
various subjects, the communication of ideas breaks the 
moral code of the school ; but when the class is considered as 
a community, the use of language as a means of communi- 
cation is sanctioned and encouraged. "Under the old 
regime it was unquestionably a most serious problem to give 
the children a full and free use of language. The reason 
was obvious. The natural motive for language was seldom 
offered. In the pedagogical textbooks language is defined 
as the medium of expressing thought. It becomes that, 
more or less, to adults with trained minds, but it hardly 



92 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

needs to be said that language is primarily a social thing, 
a means by wbicli we give our experience to others and get 
theirs again in return. "When it is taken away from its 
natural purpose, it is no wonder that it becomes a complex 
and difficult problem to teach language. Think of the 
absurdity of having to teach language as a thing by itself ! 
If there is anything a child will do before he goes to school 
it is to talk of the things that interest him. But when there 
are no vital interests appealed to in the school, when the 
language used is simply for the repetition of lessons, it is 
not surprising that one of the chief difficulties of school 
work has come to be instruction in the mother-tongue. 
Since the language taught is unnatural, not growing out of 
the real desire to communicate vital impressions and con- 
victions, the freedom of children in its use gradually disap- 
pears until finally the high-school teacher has to invent all 
kinds of devices to assist in getting any spontaneous and 
full use of speech. Moreover, when the language instinct 
is appealed to in a social way, there is continual contact 
with reality. The result is that the child always has some- 
thing in his mind to talk about, he has something to say ; he 
has a thought to express, and a thought is not a thought 
unless it is one's own. On the traditional method the child 
must say something that he has merely learned. There is 
all the difference in the world between having something to 
say and having to say something. The child who has a 
variety of materials and facts wants to talk about them, 
and his language becomes more refined and full, because it 
is controlled and informed by realities. Eeading and writ- 
ing, as well as the oral use of language may be taught on 
this basis. It can be done in a related way, as the out- 
growth of the child 's social desire to recount his experiences 
and get in return the experiences of others, directed always 
through contact with the facts and forces which determine 
the truth communicated." (John Dewey, The School and 
Society, pp. 49-50.*) Nothing but experience can enable 

*By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1900 "by 
The University of Chicago. Copyright 1900 and 1915 by John 
Dewey. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 93 

us to invest words with meaning. Work in gardens, shops, 
laboratories, walks and excursions, related home experiences 
— ^in fact any experiences may be regarded as supplying the 
' stuff of communicable thought and therefore as having a 
direct bearing upon language development. Experience 
furnishes the broad perceptual basis upon which verbal 
knowledge may safely be based. When children have a 
varied background of acquaintance with realities, verbal 
knowledge comes, as it should, as an extension of inter- 
pretation and of experience, not as a substitute for it. It 
is the task of the teacher to seize upon every occasion in 
which expression in speech is urgent and gratifying and 
make the most of it as an educational opportunity. This 
means that most of the language work with young children 
will be incidental and haphazard, consisting mainly of a 
spontaneous and natural interchange of ideas. If the con- 
ditions of the school room are properly set — I mean if they 
permit of social life — this situation takes care of itself, and 
needs only the seeing eye and the guiding hand on the 
part of the teacher. "The significant thing is that it is 
possible for the child at an early day to become acquainted 
with and to use in a personal, yet relatively controlled 
fashion, the methods by which truth is discovered and com- 
municated, and to make his own speech a channel for the 
expression and communication af truth; thus putting the 
linguistic side where it belongs — subordinate to the appro- 
priation and conveyance of what is genuinely and person- 
ally experienced." (John Dewey, The Primary Education 
Fetish, The Forum, May, 1898, p. 318.) 

If our aim is to prepare future members of society, every- 
thing within the school must be regulated in accordance 
with this aim. The present recitation scheme is anti-social. 
It encourages competition and places a ban upon coopera- 
tion. When the class is organized as a community, how- 
ever, it is possible by means of discussions to convert the 
natural interchange of thought resulting from this condi- 
tion into a more definite means of interstimulation and 
response which makes language the cement of social organ- 
ization. A group of children working along common lines, 



rr- 



94 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

where the means exists for gathering together their ideas 
and organizing them through discussions, will evolve a col- 
lective knowledge of great value. When the experiences of 
the several children are pooled in this way and subjected to 
the test of critical examination and interpretation, errors 
are weeded out and a body of tested knowledge is gradually 
built up. The reflex of this method of work upon thinking 
is very great. The thought processes of one child are refined 
and corrected in a very salutary way when constantly 
checked up by the facts and suggestions of other children. 
Unfounded opinions give way in favor of those which are 
supported by facts. Moreover these discussions afford the 
teacher an excellent opportunity to gauge the mental and 
social development of her group and to supply suggestions 
that will arouse desirable responses. The total effect of 
such work is the development of a wholesome public opinion 
and a strong community solidarity which may be made an 
effective force in fostering the growth of the social spirit. 

The question of language affects very closely the matter 
of the communication of information by the teacher or by 
means of books. It is necessary for the teacher always to 
have in mind a clear-cut conception of the particular 
function of information in a plan of education in which 
activities form the central role. The problem concerns 
itself with adjusting more abstract and remote experience 
to that which is vital and personal. "Many questions of 
instruction are bound up also with the matter of the rela- 
tion of information or communicated knowledge, to per- 
sonal acquaintance. A flavor of the second-hand, derived, 
and more or less conventional hangs about information. Its 
subject-matter is not so vitally lived through, so intimately 
appreciated, as that of familiar acquaintance. Any exam- 
ination of prevailing modes of instruction will show that 
the mere bulk of matter communicated in books and 
lectures tends to swamp the native and active interests 
operative in intelligent behavior and in the acquaintance- 
ship it brings. Then this matter remains unassimilated, 
unorganized, not really understood. It stands on a dead 
level, hostile to the selective arrangements characteristic of 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 95 

thinking, matter for memorizing rather than for judgment, 
existing as verbal symbols to be mechanically manipulated 
rather than genuine realities, intelligently appreciated. 
Yet without this communicated matter the circle of personal 
acquaintance is very narrow and superficial, and personal 
activity hardly gets above the place of routine. The solu- 
tion is found in realizing that social communication is a 
very real factor in personal doing and acquaintance. The 
educational aim is not to multiply information for the 
sake of information, nor yet to try to exclude it or narrow 
it down as much as possible. It is to fuse the transmitted 
matter and the matter of direct behavior and emotional 
response with as intimate union as possible so that the 
former will gain force, vivacity, directness from the latter, 
while the former is insensibly but continually extended and 
deepened by the latter. In short, the common error does 
not consist in attaching too great importance to trans- 
mitted facts and ideas, but in presenting them in such an 
isolated way that they are not spontaneously welded with 
the intense, though narrow matters of direct concern." 
(John Dewey, Knowledge, Cyclopaedia of Education, p. 
613.*) 

**When considered in its relation to experience, informa- 
tion becomes a valuable, indeed, an indispensable, tool in 
expanding experience. Activities are not educational ends ; 
they are only means. It is only when activities are oriented 
by a liberal scheme of related subject-matter that they arise 
above the level of training and become really educative. 
'How shall we treat the subject-matter supplied by text 
book and teacher so that it shall rank as material for reflect- 
ive inquiry, not as ready-made pabulum to be accepted and 
swallowed just as supplied by the store ? ' 

**In reply to this question we may say (1) that the com- 
munication of material should be needed. That is to say, 
it should be such as cannot readily be attained by personal 
observation. For teacher or book to cram pupils with facts 
which, with little more trouble, they could discover by 
direct inquiry, is to violate their intellectual integrity by 

*By permission The Macmillan Co. Copyright 1911. 



96 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

cultivating mental servility. This does not mean that the 
material supplied through communication of others should 
be meager or scanty. With the utmost range of the senses, 
the world of nature and history stretches out almost 
infinitely beyond. But the fields within which direct obser- 
vation is feasible should be carefully chosen and sacredly 
protected. 

"(II) Material should be supplied by way of stimulus, 
not with dogmatic finality and rigidity. When pupils get 
the notion that any field of study has been definitely sur- 
veyed, that knowledge about it is exhaustive and final, they 
may continue docile pupils, but they cease to be students. 
All thinking whatsoever — ^so be it is thinking — contains a 
phase of originality. This originality does not imply that 
the student's conclusion varies from the conclusions of 
others, much less that it is a radically novel conclusion. His 
originality is not incompatible with large use of materials 
and suggestions contributed by others. Originality means 
personal interest in the question, personal initiative in turn- 
ing over the suggestions furnished by others and sincerity 
in following them out to a tested conclusion. Literally, the 
phrase ' Think for yourself, ' is tautological ; any thinking is 
thinking for one's self. 

"(Ill) The material furnished by way of information 
should be relevant to a question that is vital in the student's 
own experience. What has been said about the evil of 
observations that begin and end in themselves may be 
transferred without change to communicated learning. In- 
struction in subject-matter that does not fit into any prob- 
lem already stirring in the student's own experience, or 
that is not presented in such a way as to arouse a problem, 
is worse than useless for intellectual purposes. In that it 
fails to enter into any process of reflection, it is useless ; in 
that it remains in the mind as so much lumber and debris, 
it is a barrier, an obstruction in the way of effective think- 
ing when a problem arises." (John Dewey, How We 
Think, pp. 197-199.*) 

Information which simply rehearses experiences already 

*By permission D. C. Heath & Co. CopyrigM 1910. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 97 

had should therefore be used with discretion. If a child 
has had a vivid first-hand set of experiences, normally his 
own memory should be vigorous enough to recall the images 
in their proper sequence. An over-use of such recall in 
verbal form is either stultifying or boring. However, 
occasionally, as a stimulus to a hazy memory, it may be of 
value to recall facts in their proper order. The great func- 
tional value of information is, however, not repetition of 
experience but interpretation of it. An isolated fact is 
without meaning. One does not understand anything unless 
one understands the relationships involved in that thing, 
and conversely to see a fact in its setting of implied rela- 
tionships is to throw a flood of illuminating light upon it 
and invest it with meaning. The best equipped and ready- 
working mind is the one which sees deepest and furthest 
into relationships. With young children the problem of 
information will be concerned mainly with making explicit 
the relationships involved in the child's own familiar world, 
thus giving him a sense of the values bound up in it, but 
care should be taken even in this early period not to limit 
the matter of information too strictly to what is known and 
familiar. Realization of relationships develops directly by 
a process of comparison. "We do not know the here and now 
until we know the distant and past. Information may there- 
fore present facts relating to matters at a distance which 
throw familiar things into sharp contrast, thus bringing to 
the child's mind the conception that events are the result 
of a certain set of conditions, and vary with those condi- 
tions. It may present related material from past history, 
thus giving the contrast due to development through time. 
It might emphasize the interdependence of things by setting 
up a hypothetical case in which a certain factor of present 
day life is lacking, and allow the child to determine the 
result that would follow. It might bring out relationships 
in the present in such a way as to show up their inadequacy 
because of certain unsatisfactory conditions and allow him 
to hazard a suggestion as to how they might be improved. 
In fact any interpretation of experience which focusses the 
attention of the child upon the processes of experience is 



98 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

within the province of information as an educational tool. 
If such information given by the teacher not only answers 
inquiries arising from experience, but suggests others as the 
logical next step to those which they have answered and 
gives them to the child to take back and answer by further 
investigation and experimentation in his own experience, 
the gap between real and second-hand experience is bridged 
and information becomes vital and suffused with emotional 
warmth. The fundamental consideration in the whole 
matter is that familiar first-hand experience is not an end, 
it is only a means, and the child must be led out from it by 
constant additions in one form or another through informa- 
tion. In a scientific pedagogy of which the general aim is 
to develop the child's sense of relationships, information 
may gradually lead the child to perceive the network of 
relationships underlying the apparently disconnected parts 
composing the world of man and nature. 

What has been said above with regard to information 
applies not only to that given verbally by the teacher, but 
also to information from books read to the children by the 
teacher or to be read by the children themselves when they 
have mastered the symbols. At present, owing to the gen- 
erally prevailing faulty knowledge of child nature due to 
the late development of psychology as an objective science, 
it is difficult to find suitable information books to be used 
by children. Most of those available are either drably 
didactic, developed along the logical lines of adult reasoning 
and therefore giving solutions to problems, not stimulating 
thought, or else they attempt to conceal the bitter morsel of 
information to be conveyed in a sugar coating of story form, 
— a device unnecessarily confusing and therefore irritating 
to a child on a serious quest for information. What is 
needed is a kind of information material which applies the 
newer ideas of the psychology of childhood. One of the 
educational contributions of experimentally conducted 
schools wiU no doubt be a new type of information books 
which have been tested out in actual experience with chU' 
dren. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 99 

READING 
Chubb, P. — The Teaching of English. Maemillan. 

Chap. II. The Limitations of the School in deal- 
ing with Illiteracy. 
Chap. III. Early Formative Phases. 
Dewey, John. — How We Think. Heath. 

Chap. XIII. Language and the Training of 

Thought. 
Chap. XIV. Observation and Information in the 

Training of Mind. 
Chap. XV. The Recitation and the Training of 
Thought. 
Leonard, S. A. — English Composition as a Social ProMem. 
Houghton. 

Chap. I. The Sources of Composition Projects in 

Child- Activities. 
Chap. II. The Social Croup as an Agent in Ex- 
pressional Standards. 

Composition. — The early stage of children's language 
development might be called the stage of unconscious tech- 
nique. The stories told spontaneously by children are very 
revealing as an index of childish interest and understand- 
ing, and much more should be made of them than is at 
present by schools as valuable contributions to child psy- 
chology. These stories form the natural first step in oral 
composition and by skilful treatment on the part of the 
teacher they may be made a fruitful means of clarifying 
thought processes. If story-telling is made a really social 
experience, each child's contribution is tested by his ability 
to get his story over to his audience, and this is a very 
efficient means of improving the organization of thought 
and the use of appropriate language. The development of 
power on the part of the group to analyze the performance 
of a child, and to evaluate its elements constitute an excel- 
lent discipline of their judgment. 

What has already been said under Linguistic Activities 
applies not only to the early stage of language development 
but offers certain underlying principles guiding the devel- 



r 



100 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

opment of language expression of older children. Creative 
power in language, as in other fields, can be fostered only 
by providing an environment which encourages it. The 
necessity for a full, rich experience cannot be too strongly 
emphasized in its effect upon language development. 
Originality, spontaneity, and invention are impossible with- 
out a varied and well-assimilated experience. Actual 
experiences lead naturally to imaginative interpretations; 
what the child takes in will find its way out in the form of 
language expression whenever such expression is appro- 
priate. In a school environment so organized that the 
channels of expression and communication are kept wide 
open, there are innumerable occasions calling for expression 
in language either verbal or written. 

With increasing maturity and the corresponding increase 
of the span of attention and interest, the child's original 
psychical impulse to expression may be expanded and 
organized in various ways. The main thing is that the 
forms of expression shall always be those which appeal to 
the child as having real value, as being really worth while. 
It is only when children's expression is undertaken with a 
clearly recognized purpose on the part of the child that we 
can hope to escape from those elaborate productions of in- 
sincerity that pass for compositions in so many schools. It 
is in the development of the expressional powers of children 
so that expression liberates and vivifies thought that the 
utmost ability of the teacher is required. For just as undue 
and premature attention to form tends to inhibit thought 
and render it sterile, so because of the mutually interactive 
nature of thought and expression, insufficient attention to 
technique tends equally to arrest thought, leaving it vague 
and hazy. The task of the school is so to modify the speech 
habits of children that their language, while retaining the 
force, vitality and variety of spontaneous expression, yet 
becomes a more and more flexible and delicately adjusted 
instrument of thought. On the expression side this means 
rendering language 'more precise and accurate; on the 
thought side it means the formation of habits of consecutive 
discourse involving the proper organization of thought. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 101 



BEADING 

Chubb, P. — The Teaching of English, Macmillan. 

Chap. VIII. Composition, Oral and Written, in 
the Primary Grades. 
Cooke, H. C. — The Play Way, Stokes. 
Chap. IV. Littlemen Lectures. 
Chap. V. Ilonds and Chap Books. 
Chap. IX. Playmaking. 
Cooke, H. C.—The Perse Play Boohs, I-V, W. Heffer & Son, 

Cambridge, England. 
Leonard, S. A. — Compos'ition as a Social ProMem, Hough- 
ton. 

Chap. III. Organization of Ideas. 
Chap. IV. Evolution and Attainment of Expres- 
sional Standards. 

Literature. — Literature is an art. In order that it may 
have an art value in the school it is necessary that it be 
presented in a way consistent with the general principles 
of art. Literature as an art is the expression in language 
of man's thoughts and feelings; it records his hopes and 
fears, his highest aspirations and his deepest despair. It 
records truth, but truth colored or interpreted by personal 
appreciation and emotion. The material of literature is 
that of the actual world selected, freed from the tem- 
porary and accidental, and expressed in a suitable art 
setting. It is the projecting and refining, by means of 
the imagination of such experiences as man has had; in 
short, it is experience idealized in one way or another. 
This view of literature has a direct bearing upon its use 
in the schoolroom. In the first place, it means that litera- 
ture should not be employed as a point of departure for 
instruction. It should represent, on the contrary, the 
gathering together of experience into a vivid and idealized 
form through the me3inm of feeling and the imagination, 
a heightening of elements which the child already appre- 
ciates as having value. When children have experienced 
the reality, tlie presentation of its imaginative idealization 



102 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

makes a strong emotional appeal. Used in this way 
literature bound to the child's life by his strong sense 
of reality is made a wholesome force in developing per- 
sonality;, instead of being the weak sentimental thing it 
so often is, offering to the child little more than a release 
from the humdrum experiences of everyday life. Our 
general aim in education is to explain reality. Literature 
to have a legitimate place in school work must share in 
this general aim and have some unique service to render 
in extending the experience of children. It has a unique 
service to offer — that of deepening their appreciation of 
the ideal factors implicit in the affairs of the world. 

This point of view should govern the kind of literature 
we give to children. The choice of literature for children 
has been confused by lack of knowledge of child nature 
and what it demands at various stages of growth. It has 
too frequently rested upon false psychological notions of 
the imagination. This has been looked upon as a faculty 
isolated and complete in itself, which had to be fed, es- 
pecially in early childhood, with fantastic and bizarre sub- 
ject-matter. It is for this reason among others that fairy- 
tales and myths have so often assumed the primary place 
in courses of literature for young children. The young 
child has, it is true, a full-functioning imagination; the 
imagination must be one of his chief means of recon- 
structing experiences not immediately presented to the 
senses ; but the imagination builds with the materials which 
experience has gathered. The safest and soundest basis 
for imagination is a rich, absorbing, varied experience with 
reality. It acts as a constant check upon the fantastic 
morbid flights of fancy indulged in by children whose 
imaginations are deprived of their legitimate functioning 
through lack of experience. "The healthy imagination 
deals not with the unreal, but with the mental realization 
of what is suggested. Its exercise is not a flight into the 
purely fanciful and ideal, but a method of expanding and 
filling in what is real. To the child the homely activities 
going on about him are not utilitarian devices for accom- 
plishing physical ends; they exemplify a wonderful world 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 103 

the depths of which he has not sounded, a world full of 
mystery and promise that attend all the doings of the 
grown-ups whom he admires. However prosaic the world 
may he to the adults who find its duties routine affairs, 
to the child it is fraught with social meaning. To engage 
in it is to exercise the imagination in constructing an 
experience of wider value than any the child has yet 
mastered." (John Dewey, How We Think, p. 166.) 

The educational belief, now exploded by the modem 
point of view in psychology, that children recapitulate 
the experience of the race has also had an effect upon 
the development of courses in literature. As children in 
their experience were thought to go through various cul- 
ture epochs, series of myths, fables, hero-tales and so on 
were arranged in accordance with this view. The possible 
result of such an accumulation of imaginative material 
divorced from actual experience is to swamp children in 
[unreality. Our educational aim is to clarify a child's 
sense of reality; any use of educational material which 
confuses the sense of reality, and leads him to confound 
fact and fantasy is illegitimate. There is no psychological 
justification for identifying imaginative power simply 
with interest in the weird, the fanciful, and the unreal 
as represented in fairy-tales and myths, or for supposing 
that it is cultivated by imaginative interpretations remote 
from experience. Undoubtedly myths and fairy-tales have 
a place in the education of children, but they need to be 
balanced by stories and information that bring the child 
into fuller and more definite relations to the world of 
reality in which he is to live. Normal children, who 
receive the stimulation of a rich and varied environment, 
need to have their images brought out and cleared up, 
rather than to have them merely excited by fanciful sub- 
ject-matter which has no relation to life. 

All folk literature represents a symbolism deeply 
fraught with sociological significance; it is indigenous to 
a certain stage of culture. Many of the myths portray 
social relationships which though perfectly appropriate 
to the age of which they are an expression, are no longer 



104 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

looked upon as desirable. Surely it is unwise to make 
children's first excursions into the ideal world represented 
by literature, with the accompanying vivid first impres- 
sions, along such mistaken routes. Such stories should 
at least be reserved for a much later period when the 
child's maturing powers, his knowledge of present-day 
social standards, Ms knowledge of forms of social life as 
expressions of various stages of the world's history, en- 
able him to understand them in their proper historical 
and social setting. This consideration of literature in 
connection with the social life of which it is an expression 
is an important and appropriate use of literature for 
older children often opening to them the doors to imagina- 
tive participation in the life of the people studied, and 
thus becoming a strong factor in creating sympathetic 
appreciation of it. 

Recent researches into the psychology of the uncon- 
scious life have made clear how many of the apparently 
harmless experiences of children have been the cause of 
submerged ideas which in later years produce obscure 
and baffling pathological results. The undiscriminating 
use of fairy-tales has in some cases been found to be a 
contributing cause. Stories of treachery and cunning, of 
cruelty and pain, grim tales of blood-feuds, and all such 
gruesome and horrible accounts in which myths and 
fairy-tales abound, make a terrible impression upon sen- 
sitive children, and may easily be the cause of neurotic 
fantasies and morbid imaginative fears. At present our 
knowledge of all this side of life is so vague that it is 
certainly wiser to be on the safe side and avoid imagina- 
tive literature of this sort. 

The moral of this discussion is not, as the emphasis 
might seem to imply, that we break with tradition. The 
present is not isolated from the past, and to fail to utilize 
the great heritage that has come to us from the past 
is to retard progress. Great masterpieces are not mere 
records of a time that is forever gone ; they have survived 
because they image forth in significant form something 
that is yet to be, and thus transcend time. As such they 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 105 

are fit matter for the education of the yoimg. But there 
is the conventional attitude toward tradition which ac- 
cepts everything indiscriminately simply because it is 
tradition, 'and there is a more intelligent use of tradition 
which selects from the great wealth of material available 
such as will best serve its purpose. The productions of 
the past become wholesome stimuli only when the back- 
ground of experiences of the reader in some way makes 
possible a correspondence between the emotional content 
of the reader and that expressed by the writer so that 
he responds in a whole-hearted manner to the matter 
recorded. When a piece of literature fails to awaken 
desirable responses from children it is an indication that 
we have somehow failed in our selection. To continue in 
such a course is to run the risk of establishing a strong 
distaste for literature instead of an intelligent enjoy- 
ment of it. 

If we argue for this critical assessment of traditional 
literature, what shall be our attitude toward those modern 
imitations of old forms which are now flooding the 
market ? The old literature represents a spontaneous out- 
burst of feeling ; as a consequence thought and its expres- 
sion are welded together as one, and expression takes 
on a character of inevitability. The modern reproduc- 
tions are often nothing but conscious imitations of the 
form lacking the sincerity and vitality of the original. 
There seems to be little excuse for using them. Modern 
stories and poems conceived in the spirit of the tradi- 
tional only are literature, and only such deserve a place 
in school work. 

The selection of literature that is really educational 
according to our newer conceptions of education, on the 
whole presents a field which is as yet uncultivated. Al- 
though the choice of literature must be determined experi- 
mentally, the general type suitable for children is straight- 
forward, direct, dramatic in quality, and free from subtle 
symbolism. "When personification is employed, if we are 
sure that the children understand it as such, they are in 
no danger of confounding fact and fancy, and they enjoy 



106 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

it in the art sense as an imaginative representation. A 
discriminating selection of traditional literature will in- 
elnde suitable myths, fairy-tales, folk stories and the like, 
but it will balance these by a generous use of other types 
of literature, both old and modern, which give a height- 
ened sense of the real romance of the real world. 

Besides the original spontaneous dramatization that 
children engage in, they often enjoy turning the materials 
of stories read to them into active form by dramatizing 
them. This is a very legitimate use of literature in school. 
It is the child's way of making the material his own; of 
experiencing it ; and it may be made a valuable educational 
instrument, provided it is carried on under the general 
point of view that the form and direction of activity is not 
to be impressed from without, but is to be the free expres- 
sion of the children's conceptions. When this is so, the 
reproduction of stories in dramatic form gives a very true 
index of the children's understanding of the material read. 
This point of view does not mean, of course, that the 
teacher should not make suggestions; it means only that 
the general course of the activity should be dictated by 
the children. This kind of activity forms a center for a 
great number of related activities of a constructive nature, 
the preparation of costumes, and of other materials neces- 
sary to play. As a group activity undertaken with a com- 
mon purpose it is also a powerful means of developing the 
social spirit. 

READING 

Bruce, H. Addington. — Handicaps of Childhood. Dodd, 
Mead. 

Chap. VIII. Fairy Tales That Handicap. 
Cooke, H. C. — The Play Way, Stokes. 

Chap. VII. Acting Shakespeare in the Class 

Room. 
Chap. VIII. Miming and the Ballads. 
Dewey, John. — Article on the Culture Epoch Theory. 
Cyclopsedia of Education, Macmillan. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 107 

McClintock, p. L. — Literature in the Elementary School 

— University of Chicago Press. 
Mitchell, Lucy Spkague. — Here and Now Story Book. 

Dutton. 

Introduction. 
Rank, 0. — Myth of the Birth of the Hero — ^Nervous and 

Mental Disease Monograph, No. 18. 
RiCKLiN, Fkanz. — Wish Fulfillment and Symbolism in Fairy 

Tales. Nervous and Mental Disease Monograph, No. 21. 

Enough has perhaps been said to indicate the nature 
of the play environment to he provided and the aims to 
be sought. Let the children explore the world of reality 
as widely as possible, let them experiment with things 
freely, let them reproduce their impressions in as many 
creative art forms as possible. Supplement this active 
work wherever possible with related subject-matter that 
explains and extends the first-hand experiences which the 
children are gaining. The whole work will take its motiva- 
tion and direction in guiding the natural capacities and 
interests of the children into functional relations with 
the world of man and nature. These early school ex- 
periences should be infinitely varied, touched lightly, and 
left behind — ^for this is the natural way of childhood. 

Activity as Work 

Play activities are occupations pleasurable in them- 
selves; pleasure comes as a direct reflex of the bodily 
activities. The motivation of activity toward the accom- 
plishment of purposes is, however, characteristic of the 
human intellect. With the growth of the child's mind 
in knowledge and power, curiosity develops a more in- 
tellectual form, the ends of inquiry are projected into 
the abstract, and the pleasurable emotional reflex is trans- 
ferred from activity for its own sake, into an emotional 
reflex from activity directed toward the realization of 
purposes. With increasing ability in technique, interest 
in the process for its own sake, which is characteristic 
of the play impulse, tends to pass over into an appropriate 



108 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

interest in the product, which is at the foundation of the 
instinct of workmanship. Just as the play school aims 
to give young children a rich play experience, schools 
for older children should provide an environment fitted 
to develop the best characteristics of the instinct of 
workmanship. This does not mean necessarily any sharp 
differentiation in kind between the earlier and later ac- 
tivities provided by the school. The course of a develop- 
ing experience is continuous. The simple concrete pro- 
jects of the early period are the matrix out of which 
the later, more refined, more controlled forms should grow. 
All the types of activity noted under play should there- 
fore form a part of the later work of the school. 

The gradual development from the play interest to the 
work interest involves the question of the supplying of 
technique by the school. It cannot be too strongly em- 
phasi2;ed how dependent the value of the school as a work 
laboratory is upon the extent to which the play school 
fulfills its function. We have seen that psychologically 
every increase in control is necessarily marked by a cor- 
responding inhibition of responses inappropriate to 
achieving the desired end. Through the constant working 
of this process the channels of expression are deepened 
and narrowed. If the avenues of expression are kept 
freely open in early childhood, the play of little children 
develops a broad basis of interests, and some facility in 
a variety of techniques from which the later more in- 
dividual interests of the child may make intelligent selec- 
tion. It is obviously only when the basis of early ex- 
perimentation is broad and varied that this result can 
come about. If the avenues of expression are restricted 
early, the selection of later activities is controlled not by 
the purposes and interests of the child, but by technical 
ability. The principles of work, therefore, should not be 
introduced too early; it is the duty of the school to pro- 
long the plasticity of childhood as long as possible. Con- 
sideration of the opposite aspect of the matter is, however, 
also necessary. Interest and ability to satisfy it seldom 
form an equation ; indeed the constant attention to equate 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 109 

them forms a powerful stimulus constituting the educa- 
tive value of effort, which is an attempt to arrange the 
means for the adequate accomplishment of the desired 
end. The margin of difference between interest and the 
power to realize it, however, must not be too great, or 
the stimulus to effort disappears. We cease to take in- 
terest in anything we see no prospect in accomplishing. 
Technique should, therefore, not be withheld too long. 
The greatest acumen and skill is needed on the part of 
the teacher to determine just when technique is needed, 
just how much is needed to keep activity up to the 
highest level of achievement, and by what methods it 
may be so economically employed that it becomes an aid 
to developing experience instead of a break in the con- 
tinuity between purpose and its effective realization. 

The selection of activities during the play period is 
indicated predominantly by psychological consideration. 
Although the final criterion for any work undertaken 
by the school is of necessity psychological, as the ex- 
perience of children broadens through the gradual expan- 
sion of their environment, activities should be chosen more 
and more as a means of organizing their powers in social 
directions. Our general educational purpose of making 
clear to children the fundamental relationships implicit in 
the complex social life into which they are being initiated 
should govern our choice of occupations out of the mul- 
titude of opportunities for activity presented by the 
present day environment. Since upon these children will 
fall the responsibility of maintaining the activities by 
which society is advanced, it seems evident that they 
should have insight into those fundamental processes 
which are indispensable to the continuance of associated 
life, and into their relationship to social advancement. 
The consequences are such as to affect the very nature 
of social life; therefore education cannot neglect this 
responsibility. There is no better way of initiating chil- 
dren into the complex industrial situation of the present 
than to give them experience in its fundamental processes. 
It is only ty thus coming into active relations with the 



110 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

fundamental necessities of community life, hy being con- 
fronted hy its problems, that children can understand 
them. "We must conceive of work in wood and metal, 
of weaving, sewing, and cooking, as methods of living 
and learning, not as distinct studies. We must conceive 
of them in their social significance as types of processes 
by which society keeps itself going, as agencies for bring- 
ing home to the child some of the primal necessities of 
community life, and as ways in which those needs have 
been met by the growing insight and ingenuity of man" 
(John Dewey, The School and Society, p. 11). Children 
who have experienced in simplified form the complete round 
of activities from the production of the raw material and 
its manufacture into forms related to need and use, have 
had an experience which gives the key to their understand- 
ing of the complex industrial processes seen in their com- 
munity. If this constructive work of the school which is 
really a simpler statement of present-day processes involv- 
ing their fundamental principles, is constantly reinforced 
by trips to industrial plants, children are prepared to 
understand the meaning of even complex machinery, to see 
its purpose, the principles upon which it is controlled, and 
so on. The contrast between their simple hand-made 
products and the achievements of modern machinery forms 
an illuminating object lesson showing the marvelous strides 
which the inventive genius of man has made in perfecting 
the means of satisfying his purposes. 

Work with the processes that lie at the heart of the indus- 
trial situation may be made an experience of the highest 
educational value, since it is possible to develop the work 
purely from the point of view of its educative effect and to 
attach to it all that wealth of cultural matter which gives it 
social significance and which is usually lacking in occupa- 
tions carried on outside of school. "The continually 
increasing importance of economic factors in contemporary 
life makes it the more needed that education should reveal 
their scientific content and their social value. For in 
schools, occupations are not carried on for pecuniary gaiii 
but for their own content. Freed from extraneous associa- 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 111 

tion, and from the pressure of wage-earning, they supply 
modes of experience which are intrinsically valuable ; they 
are truly liberalizing in quality." (John Dewey, Democ- 
racy and Education, p. 235.) All occupations are saturated 
with facts of deepest social import and as children advance 
in maturity, their experiences should be more and more a 
means of revealing to them the historic, economic, social 
and scientific factors implicit in them. In social life to-day 
we have separated hand work and brain work. The only 
hope for the future of an industrial democracy lies in so 
educating our children that they become more and more 
sensitive to the social significance of their day to day 
experiences. It is only by thus releasing experience from 
its narrow utilities that we can hope to make schools centers 
of art, science and social interpretation. ''There is always 
danger that an educational preparation for industry shall 
become over-technical and utilitarian, carrying back into 
the school the most undesirable features of the present 
industrial regime. Our protection lies in making the indus- 
trial activities in the school artistic. Or there is danger that 
the harshly utilitarian be escaped only at the risk of an 
obviously amateurish fooling with occupations — a reduction 
of the play idea to make believe and idle pretense. The 
remedy once more is to make the play of childhood pro- 
ductive, efficient of results: to make it art. This alone 
refines and idealizes the harsher and duller features of 
labor while it directs and articulates the play spirit, which, 
pursued apart from productive control of physical ma- 
terials, becomes weak and sentimental. Art is like industry 
in that it must achieve visible and tangible embodiment 
ministering to human use — a result so visible and tangible 
as to involve judgment by palpable standards, while so 
ministering to the human spirit as to carry its own standard 
with it in the joy of thought it expresses and feeds. Like 
industry it needs definite tools, accurate processes, an exact 
technique. But in elevating the materials, the technique, 
the outward means and ends, into the region of personal 
imagination, it gives an education which educates not alone 
to specific utilities and commodities, but to the widest of 



112 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

all uses ; to the just apprehension of values whenever and 
wherever presented." (John Dewey, Culture and Industry 
in Education, Educational Bi-monthly, October 1, 1906, 
p. 9.*) 

READING 

Dewey, John. — Culture and Industry in Education, Edu- 
cational Bi-monthly, October 1, 1906. 
Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, Macmillan. 

Chap. XV. Play and "Work in the Curriculum. 
Chap. XXIII. Vocational Aspects of Education. 
Dewey, John. — How We Think, Heath. 

Chap. XII. Section 2, Play, Work and Allied 
Forms of Activity. Section 3, Con- 
structive Occupations. 
Chap, XVI. Section 2, Process and Product. 
Dewey, John, — TJie School and Society, University of 
Chicago Press. 

Chap, VI. The Psychology of Occupations. 
Chap, VII. The Development of Attention. 
Dewey, John. — Schools of To-morrow, Dutton. 
Chap. X. Education Through Industry. 
Dopp, Katherine. — A New Factor in the Elementary- 
School Curriculum, American Journal of Sociology, 
September, 1902. 
Harmer, Althea. — Textile Industries, Elementary School 

Eecord No. 3, University of Chicago Press. 
Richards, A. W. — The Thought Side of Manual Training, 

Manual Training Magazine, January, 1902. 
Row, R. K. — The Educational Meaning of Manual Arts and 

Industries, Row, Peterson. 
Russell, J. E., and Bonser, F. G. — Industrial Education, 
Teachers College Publication. 

Science 

The scientific knowledge which accrues as a result of 
more or less random investigations and experimenta- 
tion during the play period may be greatly extended 

*By permission Chicago Normal College. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 113 

and deepened in significance as children mature and engage 
in more purposeful activities. All occupations, as we have 
seen, rest upon scientific insight and information. Just 
as the race arrived at its scientific conclusions through 
every-day experiences, children can best understand funda- 
mental scientific principles by seeing them in their practical 
workings. Unless children are led to inquire further and 
further into the natural facts and forces involved in the 
occupations in which they are engaged, their work will 
result in mere acquisition of technical skill. One of 
the chief values in introducing occupations into school is 
that they provide natural avenues for advance into scien- 
tific principles and give a motive for becoming acquainted 
with them. By this method science, instead of being an 
abstract body of information isolated from every-day con- 
cerns and arrived at through the manipulation of peculiar 
apparatus, becomes a dynamic force constantly deepening 
the meaning of experience through showing the relationships 
involved in it. 

In order to make clear the true relationship between 
science and occupations, it is necessary to rid our minds of 
the misconceptions that have arisen from contemplating 
subjects of study as isolated and complete units of knowl- 
edge, to be iiapressed directly upon growing minds. It has 
frequently been the practice of schools to begin science 
instruction with the rudiments of science simplified. The 
pupils acquire a body of technical information without 
ability to trace its relation to the daily occurrences with 
which they are familiar. Science, however, ought not to be 
regarded as new subject-matter, but as showing the factors 
involved in every-day experiences. Its function in the 
curriculum should be identical with that which it has per- 
formed in the history of the race: intellectual control of 
every-day experience through an understanding of its 
scientific implications. Scientific knowledge developed in 
this way becomes the means of revealing the world of 
orderly relationships underlying the apparently unrelated 
world of experience. 

It is recognition of this point of view that has given the 



114 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

impetus to general science instead of courses in specific 
sciences. "As an attempt to get back nearer to the world 
in which the pupil lives, and away from a world which 
exists only for the scientist, the general science tendency 
has, ... its justification. But I have an impression that in 
practice it may mean two quite different things. It may 
take its departure from sciences which are already differ- 
entiated, and simply pick out pieces from them, some from 
physics, some from chemistry, some from physiography, 
some from botany, etc., and out of this varied selection 
form something to serve as an introduction to sciences in a 
more specialized form. Now this method I believe to be 
of the static type after all. It gives scope for variety and 
adaptation, and will work with the right teacher. But, 
urged as a general movement, I believe it retains the 
essential mistake of any method which begins with scientific 
knowledge in its already-made form, while in addition it 
lends itself very easily to scrappy and superficial work, and 
even to a distaste for the continued and serious thinking 
necessary to a real mastery of science. 

''General science may, however, have another meaning. 
It may mean that a person who is himself an expert in 
scientific knowledge forgets for the time being the conven- 
tional divisions of the sciences, and puts himself at the 
standpoint of pupils' experience of natural forces, together 
with their ordinary useful applications. He does not, how- 
ever, forget the scientific possibilities of these experiences, 
nor does he forget that there is an order of relative im- 
portance in scientific principles — that is to say, that some 
are more fundamental, some necessary in order to under- 
stand others, and thus more fruitful and ramifying. 

"While, then, he may take his subject-matter from any 
of the ordinary and more familiar materials of daily life, 
he does not allow that material, in its obvious and super- 
ficial form, to dictate to him the nature of the subsequent 
study. It may be varnish, or cleansers, or bleachers, or a 
gasolene engine. But he never for a moment allows in his 
educational planning that thing to become the end of 
study; when he does, we have simply the wrong kind of 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 115 

elementary nature-study over again. To him, as a teacher, 
the material is simply a means, a tool, a road. It is a way 
of getting at some process of nature's activity which is 
widely exemplified in other phenomena and which, when 
graspt, will render them more significant and intelligible. 
While the student's attention may remain, so far as his 
conscious interest is concerned, upon the phenomena 
directly in front of him, it is the teacher's duty to see that 
he gets below the surface to the perception of whatever is 
scientifically in the experience. This need not be labeled 
a principle or law — in fact, if it is so labeled at first, the 
name 'principle' or 'law' will be merely a label. But if 
further material is selected so that what the pupil got hold 
of before serves as a means of intellectual approach and 
understanding, it becomes a principle or law for him : a law 
of his own thinking and inquiries, a standpoint from which 
he surveys facts and attempts to reduce them to order. . . . 
"My point may perhaps be stated by saying that the 
right course lies between two erroneous courses. One 
method is the scrappy one of picking up isolated materials 
just because they happen to be familiar objects within the 
pupil's experience, and of merely extending and deepening 
the range of the pupil's familiarity, and then passing on to 
something else. No amount of this process will make an 
introduction to science, to say nothing of science, for an 
introduction leads or draws into a subject, while the scrappy 
method never, save by accident, gets the pupil within range 
of the problems and explanatory methods of science. The 
other erroneous course is taken when the teacher's imagina- 
tion is so limited that he cannot conceive of science existing 
except in the definitely segregated areas, concepts, and terms 
which are found in books under the heads of 'physics,* 
* chemistry,' etc., and who is thus restricted to moving within 
these boundaries. Such a person forgets that there is no 
material in existence which is physical or chemical or 
botanical, but that a certain ordinary subject-matter he- 
comes physical, or chemical, or botanical when certain ques- 
tions are raised, and when it is subjected to certain modes 
of inquiry. "What is desired of the pupil is that, starting 



116 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

from the ordinary unelast material of experience, he shall 
acquire command of the points of view, the ideas and 
methods, which make it physical or chemical or whatever. 

"I return to what I said . . . about the dynamic point of 
view as the really scientific one, or the understanding of 
process as the heart of the scientific attitude. What are 
called 'physics' and 'chemistry' deal in effect with the 
lawful energies which bring about changes. . . . But it 
does not follow that the material which is found in the text 
which segregates certain considerations under the head of 
physics or chemistry is the material to begin with. That is 
the fallacy against which I have been arguing. Plant and 
animal life, the operations of machines, and the familiar 
appliances and processes of industrial life are much more 
likely to furnish the actual starting material. "What the 
principle calls for is that the pupil shall be led in his study 
of plant and animal life, of the machine and its operations, 
to the basic operations which enable him to understand 
what is before him — ^to be led inevitably to physical and 
chemical principles. Nothing is more unfortunate for edu- 
cation than the usual separation between the sciences of 
life and the physical sciences. Living phenomena are 
natural and interesting material from which to set out, 
especially in all rural environments. But they are educa- 
tionally significant in the degree in which they are used to 
procure an insight into just those principles which are not 
plants and animals, but which, when they are formulated 
by themselves, constitute physics and chemistry. It is the 
failure to carry nature-study on to this insight which is 
responsible for its pedagogically unsatisfactory character, 
and the movement toward general science will repeat the 
failure unless it keep the goal of physical and chemical 
principle steadily in view." (John Dewey, Method in 
Science Teaching, Addresses and Proceedings of the 
National Education Association, 1916, pp. 730-733.*) 

*By permission National Education Association, 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 117 



READING 

Camp, K. B. — Science in Elementary Education. Elemen- 
tary School Record, No. VI. University of Chicago 
Press. 

Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education. Macmillan. 
Chap. XVII. Science in the Course of Study, 

Dewey, John. — ^Articles on Scientific MetJiod. Cyclopaedia 
of Education, Macmillan. 

Dewey, John. — MetJiod in Science TeacMng, Addresses 
and Proceedings of The National Education Associa- 
tion, 1916. 

Dewey, John. — Science as Subject Matter and as Method. 
Science, Jan. 28, 1910. 

Peakson, Kael. — The Grammar of Science. A. & C. Black, 
London. 

WooDHULL, J. F. — The Teaching of Science. Macmillan. 

The foregoing discussions have defined the place of 
activity in any scientific plan of education, and they sug- 
gests the general course of its development. Activities afford 
the most direct instrumentalities for the extension of 
experience; they are the fundamental prerequisite to learn- 
ing; they offer the concrete approach to knowledge; they 
provide the natural centers for the organization of subjects 
of study. The school subjects, as we have seen, have been 
evolved from occupations and they get a rational correlation 
and content in children's minds through association with 
activities. ''Education through occupations consequently 
combines within itself more of the factors conducive to 
learning than any other method. It calls instincts and 
habits into play ; it is a foe to passive receptivity. It has 
an end in view; results are to be accomplished. Hence it 
appeals to thought; it demands that an idea of an end be 
steadily maintained, so that activity cannot be either 
routine or capricious. Since the movement of activity musfl 
be progressive, leading from one stage to another, observa- 
tion and ingenuity are required at each stage to overcome 
obstacles and to discover and readapt means of execution.'* 



118 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

(Jolin Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 361.) Finally, 
activities offer a natural means of understanding the life of 
the industrial community in which the pupils are eventually 
to play a part. It is therefore a fundamental responsibility 
of the school to develop in its pupils a conception of indus- 
try as an evolving process in which its relation to the arts, 
sciences, history and social advancement are made apparent. 

The Tool Subjects 

When it becomes evident that children are ready to gain 
control of those instrumentalities through the mastery of 
which they may acquire book knowledge for themselves, 
work in reading, writing, spelling and arithmetic should be 
begun. To withhold them longer is to retard the natural 
progress of experience. It is necessary for the teacher to 
have a clear-cut point of view with regard to these subjects, 
otherwise she is in danger of divorcing them from the 
active work of the school. Independence in these subjects 
means mastery of the symbols of learning. Symbols, 
rightly employed, are most important agents in extending 
and controlling experience. They are the keys which 
unlock to the child a wealth of vicarious experience lying 
beyond the possible range of his limited individual experi- 
ence. "There is a sense in which it is impossible to value 
too highly the formal and the symbolic. The genuine form, 
the real symbol, serve as methods in the holding and dis- 
covery of truth. They are tools by which the individual 
pushes out most surely and widely into unexplored areas. 
. . . They are means by which he brings to bear whatever of 
reality he has succeeded in gaining in past searchings. But 
this happens only when the symbol really symbolizes — when 
it stands for and sums up in short-hand actual experiences 
which the individual has already gone through. A symbol 
which is induced from without, which has not been led up 
to in preliminary activities, is, as we say, a hare or mere 
symbol; it is dead and barren." (John Dewey, The Child 
and the Curriculum, pp. 31-32.) 

Certain conditions should be observed in the introduction 
and use of the tool subjects. ''The conditions may be 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 119 

reduced to two: (1) The need that the child shall have in 
his own personal and vital experience a varied background 
of contact and acquaintance with realities, social and 
physical. This is necessary to prevent symbols from becom- 
ing a purely second-hand and conventional substitute for 
reality. (2) The need that the more ordinary, direct, and 
personal experience of the child shall furnish problems, 
motives, and interests that necessitate recourse to books for 
their solution, satisfaction, and pursuit. Otherwise, the 
child approaches the book without intellectual hunger, with- 
out alertness, without a questioning attitude and the result 
is the one so deplorably common: such abject dependence 
upon books as weakens and cripples vigor of thought and 
inquiry, combined with reading for mere random stimula- 
tion of fancy, emotional indulgence, and flight from the 
world of reality into a make-believe land. 

"The problem here is then (1) to furnish the child with 
a sufficiently large amount of personal activity in occupa- 
tions, expression, conversation, construction, and experi- 
mentation, so that his individuality, moral and intellectual, 
shall not be swamped by a disproportionate amount of the 
experience of others to which books introduce him; and 
(2) so to conduct this more direct experience as to make the 
child feel the need of resort to and command of the tra- 
ditional social tools — furnish him with motives and make 
his recourse to them intelligent, an addition to his powers, 
instead of a servile dependency. "When this problem shall 
be solved, work in language, literature, and number will not 
be a combination of mechanical drill, formal analysis, and 
appeal, even if unconscious, to sensational interests; and 
there will not be the slightest reason to fear that books and 
all that relates to them will not take the important place to 
which they are entitled. . . . 

"The more direct modes of activity, constructive and 
occupation work, scientific observation, experimentation, 
etc., present plenty of opportunities and occasions for the 
necessary use of reading, writing, (and spelling), and num- 
ber work. These things may be introduced, then, not as 
isolated studies, but as organic outgrowths of the child's 



120 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

experience. The problem is, in a systematic and progressive 
way, to take advantage of these occasions. The additional 
vitality and meaning which these studies thus secure make 
possible a very considerable reduction of the time ordinarily 
devoted to them. The final use of the symbols, whether in 
reading, calculation, or composition, is more intelligent, 
less mechanical ; more active, less passively receptive ; more 
an increase of power, less a mere mode of enjoyment. (John 
Dewey, The School and Society, pp. 104-107.*) 

The gaining of automatic perfection, which is neces- 
sary to success in the tool subjects, depends upon 
the laws of habit-formation. Since it is impossible to 
develop habits without frequent repetition and since in the 
ordinary school experience the same situation does not recur 
often enough or at close enough intervals to give oppor- 
tunity for the adequate development of the necessary 
habits, drill is necessary. Educational errors with regard 
to drill seem to go to two extremes : either drill is treated as 
an end in itself, is unrelated to the children's experience 
and is over-emphasized, or, in the newer modes of instruc- 
tion, in reaction against this exaggeration, it is treated as 
of negligible importance, and dealt with only incidentally. 
The wiser course seems to be an intermediate one in which 
there is an attempt to preserve a balance between the 
mastery of technique and the advancement of subject- 
matter that is inherently significant. Drill divorced from 
meaningful content tends to develop a kind of routine skill, 
by mere imitation and constant repetition without any 
sensible grasp of the rationale of the operations performed. 
This is gained by sheer length of experience ; it is unaccom- 
panied by any of the natural joy that springs from activity 
spontaneously developed and rationally cultivated. There 
is a much higher form of skill possible which owes its 
development to an intelligent understanding of why it is 
undertaken. This makes for much more rapid development 
of power. The following suggestions may be helpful in 
bringing intelligence to bear upon drill : 

*By permission University of Chicago. Copyright 1900 by The 
University of Chicago. Copyright 1900 and 1915 by John Dewey. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 121 

1. Drill should grow out of specific life situations that 
Bhow its necessity and thus give it meaning. This means 
that experience precedes drill. 

2. Children should be made conscious of the relation 
between drill and the effective carrying out of their pur- 
poses. Once children see the necessity for drill they will be 
willing to undergo it. 

3. The proper balance should be preserved between drill 
and experience. Exercises to develop habits should be 
reduced to just the amount necessary to make them auto- 
matic. Drill should not be over emphasized. It should be 
confined to those things which are fundamental; an effort 
should be made to discover what the minimum essentials 
of drill are. 

' 4. Progress in habit-formation should be measured. By 
this I do not mean necessarily the use of standardized tests, 
since these may set up a standard that may be outside the 
experience of any particular group of children, I mean 
rather some measurement devised with reference to the 
experience that a particular group has had. 

5. Children should themselves be conscious of their 
progress in habit-formation. Too frequently tests ard 
applied in school work as information for the teacher only. 
One of the most important uses of tests is that the child 
himself may realize his own success or failures in forming 
desired habits. If we are to make children intelligent in 
regard to drill, they must be made cognizant of their 
progress. Perhaps the best way of doing this is by having 
each child make a simple graph in which his learning curve 
is indicated. It is possible for even young children to do 
this successfully, and the use of the graph greatly stimu- 
lates speed in acquisition. The graph should be discussed 
frequently by the teacher and the child, and he should 
gradually be able to analyze out of his performance the 
elements leading to success or failure. 

6. Children should not be forced arbitrarily to follow 
ieertain forms; opportunity should be given them to evolve 
better methods of doing their work, "What may be an 



122 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

efficient method of drill for one child may not be equally so 
for another. 

Beading. — Eeading involves certain complicated eye ad- 
justments, and is a severe mental strain. Too early reading 
and too great application to it are the frequent cause of 
eye-strain and nervous fatigue, so that best pedagogical 
thought now supports postponing learning to read until 
after the first year in school. Much more practice should 
be given in silent reading, and oral reading, when engaged 
in, should be motivated. 

In a scheme of education which makes knowledge an end 
in itself, it is natural that the means by which knowledge is 
to be gained should be the first consideration of the school. 
Hence in traditional education ''It is almost an unques- 
tioned assumption, of educational theory and practice both, 
that the first three years of a child's school-life shall be 
mainly taken up with learning to read and write his own 
language. If we add to this the learning of a certain 
amount of numerical combinations, we have the pivot about 
which primary education swings. Other subjects may be 
taught ; but they are introduced in strict subordination. . . . 
What can be said against giving up the greater portion of 
the first two years of school life to the mastery of linguistic 
form 1 In the first place, physiologists are coming to believe 
that the sense-organs and connected nerve and motor 
apparatus of the child are not at this period best adapted 
to the confining and analytic work of learning to read and 
write. There is an order in which sensory and motor 
centers develop — an order expressed, in a general way, by 
saying that the line of progress is from the larger, coarser 
adjustments having to do with the bodily system as a whole 
(those nearest the trunk of the body) to the finer and 
accurate adjustments having to do with the periphery and 
extremities of the organism. The oculist tells us that the 
vision of the child is essentially that of the savage ; being 
adapted to seeing large and somewhat remote objects in the 
mass, not near-by objects in detail. To violate this law means 
undue nervous strain : it means putting the greatest tension 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 123 

upon the centers least able to do the work. At the same 
time, the lines of activity which are hungering and thirst- 
ing for action are left, unused, to atrophy. . . . Forcing 
children at a premature age to devote their entire attention 
to these refined and cramped adjustments has left behind 
it a sad record of injured nervous systems and of muscular 
disorders and distortions. While there are undoubted 
exceptions, present physiological knowledge points to the 
age of about eight years as early enough for anything more 
than an incidental attention to visual and written language 
form. 

"We must not forget that these forms are symbols. I 
am far from deprecating the value of symbols in our intel- 
lectual life. It is hardly too much to say that all progress 
in ciAdlization upon the intellectual side has depended upon 
increasing invention and control of symbols of one sort or 
another. Nor do I join in the un discriminating cry of those 
who condemn the study of language as having to do with 
mere words, not with realities. Such a position is one-sided, 
and is as crude as the view against it which is a reaction. 
But there is an important question here: Is the child of 
six or seven years ready for symbols to such an extent that 
the stress of educational life can be thrown upon them ? If 
we were to look at the question independently of the exist- 
ing school system, in the light of the child's natural needs 
and interests at this period, I doubt if there could be found 
anyone who would say that the urgent call of the child of 
six and seven is for this sort of nutriment, instead of for 
more direct introduction into the wealth of natural and 
social forms that surrounds him. No doubt the skilful 
teacher often succeeds in awakening an interest in these 
matters ; but the interest has to be excited in a more or less 
artificial way, and, when excited is somewhat factitious and 
independent of other interests of child-life. At this point 
the wedge is introduced and driven in which marks the 
growing divorce between school and outside interests and 
occupations. 

''We cannot recur too often in educational matters to the 
conception of John Fiske that advance in civilization is an 



124 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

aeeompaniment of the prolongation of infancy. Anything 
which, at this period, develops to a high degree any set of 
organs and centers at the expense of others means pre- 
mature specialization, and the arrest of an equable and all- 
round development. Many educators are already convinced 
that premature facility and glibness in the matter of 
numerical combinations tend toward an arrested develop- 
ment of certain higher spiritual capacities. The same thing 
is true in the matter of verbal symbols. Only the trained 
psychologist is aware of the amount of analysis and abstrac- 
tion demanded by the visual recognition of a verbal form. 
Many suppose that abstraction is found only where more or 
less complex reasoning exists. But as a matter of fact the 
essence of abstraction is found in compelling attention to 
rest upon elements which are more or less cut off from 
direct channels of interest and action. To require a child 
to turn away from the rich material which is all about him, 
to which he spontaneously attends, and which is his natural, 
unconscious food, is to compel the premature use of analytic 
and abstract powers. It is wilfully to deprive the child of 
that synthetic life, that unconscious union with his environ- 
ment, which is his birthright and privilege. There is every 
reason to suppose that a premature demand upon the 
abstract intellectual capacity stands in its own way. It 
cripples rather than furthers later intellectual development. 
We are not yet in a position to know how much of the 
inertia and seeming paralysis of mental powers in later 
periods is the direct outcome of excessive and too early 
appeal to isolated intellectual capacity. We must trust to 
the development of physiology and psychology to make 
these matters so clear that school authorities and the public 
opinion which controls them shall have no option. Only 
then can we hope to escape that deadening of the childish 
activities which led Jowett to call education 'the grave of 
the mind.' 

* 'Were the matter not so serious it would be ludicrous, when 
we reflect how all this time and effort fail to reach the end 
to which they are specially consecrated. It is a common 
saying among intelligent educators that they can go into a 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 125 

school-room and select the children who picked up reading 
at home: they read so much more naturally and intelli- 
gently. The stilted, mechanical, droning, and sing-song 
ways of reading which prevail in many of our schools are 
simply the reflex of the lack of motive. Reading is made 
an isolated accomplishment. There are no aims in the 
child's mind which he feels he can serve by reading; there 
is no mental hunger to be satisfied; there are no conscious 
problems with reference to which he uses books. The book 
is a reading-lesson. He learns to read not for the sake of 
what he reads, but for the mere sake of reading. When the 
bare process of reading is thus made an end in itself, it is 
a psychological impossibility for reading to be other than 
lifeless. . . . 

"Methods for learning to read come and go across the 
educational arena, like the march of supernumeraries upon 
the stage. Each is heralded as the final solution of the 
problem of learning to read ; but each in turn gives way to 
some later discovery. The simple fact is, that they all lack 
the essential of any well-grounded method, namely, 
relevancy to the child's mental needs. No scheme for learn- 
ing to read can supply this want. Only a new motive — 
putting the child into a vital relation to the materials to be 
read — can be of service here. It is evident that this con- 
dition cannot be met, unless learning to read be postponed 
to a period when the child's intellectual appetite is more 
consciously active, and when he is mature enough to deal 
more rapidly and effectively with the formal and mechan- 
ical difficulties. (John Dewey, The Primary Education 
Fetish, The Forum, May, 1898, pp. 315-323.*) 

EEADING 

Chubb, P. — The Teaching of English, MacmiUan. 
Chap. V, Learning to Read and Write. 
Chap. VI and VII. Reading in the Primary 

Grades. 

*By permission The Forum Publishing Co. Copyright 1898. 



126 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Dewey, John. — The Primary Education Fetish,, Forum, 
May, 1898. 

Dearborn, W. F. — The Psychology of Beading, Columbia 
University Contributions to Philosophy and Psychol- 
ogy, Vol. XIV, No. 1 (out of print). 

HuEY, E. B. — The Psychology and Pedagogy of Beading, 
Macmillan. 

JuDD, C. H. — Beading: Its Nature and Development, Sup- 
plementary Educational Monographs, Vol. II, No. 4, 
University of Chicago Press. 

Klapper, p. — Teaching Children to Bead, Appleton. 

Writing. — Systems of teaching writing, Speneerian, ver- 
tical, Palmer and so on, come and go, and instead of being 
a solution of the problem seem only to add to its complexity. 
Two fundamental points to be considered with regard to 
writing are the child's need of it and his physical fitness to 
undertake it. "Writing does not need to be taught until the 
child begins to feel a desire to express himself by written 
symbols rather than by some other means. Spelling and 
writing go together and should both be incidental until a 
later stage than that of learning to read. "Writing involves 
a complex movement necessitating the coordination and 
control of a number of muscles of the arm, the hand and 
the fingers. It must be evident that the complexity of the 
movements involved and the close attention required make 
it unsuitable to the early stage of child development. In 
experiments carried on by Bryan and Gilbert, it was found 
that the motor ability of the arm and hand reached matur- 
ity about the period of adolescence, and that about the 
age of nine or ten the finger movements acquired a high 
percentage of ability. It seems probable, therefore, that 
the child is not physiologically fitted to do much writing 
or a finished type of writing before that time. When begin- 
ning writing the child, of necessity, writes haltingly, 
laboriously, and irregularly because of the complexity of 
the coordinations necessary to producing writing. Conse- 
quently little writing should be required of a child at first 
and that little accomplished with as little consciousness as 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 127 

possible. Early writing should be large, exercising the 
large muscles ; gradually it may be made smaller and more 
attention paid to details. From the beginning it should be 
upon content that has meaning for the child. 

Since writing depends upon habit-formation, a careful 
consideration of the best form of practice is important. 
Practice for practice' sake soon degenerates into careless- 
ness and for this reason copy-books have been discarded. 
The most effective practice is gained through expressing 
one's thought. Copy-books may profitably be used as 
reference books to be consulted as a corrective of form. 
The child should observe the correct form of a troublesome 
letter and practice it, by continuous comparisons with the 
model he is able to correct his errors. 

Handwriting scales have been extensively used recently 
as a means of improving form. They are valuable in 
supplying an incentive to improvement. It is possible with 
children beginning writing to evolve a scale from their own 
experience by preserving specimens of writing done at 
regular intervals. Each child can then observe his own 
improvement. One of the most effective aids to improve- 
ment lies in directing the child's attention to the sources of 
his own failure and successes and thus making him an 
intelligent critic of his own work. 

BEADING 

Ayres, L. — Measuring Scale for Handwriting, Russell Sage 

Foundation. 
Freeman, F. N. — TJie Teaching of Handwriting, Houghton. 
Thorndike, E. L. — Handwriting, Teachers College Record, 

March, 1910. 

Spelling. — It has been found by investigation that the 
time actually devoted to spelling in schools, as given on 
daily school programs, ranges from ten minutes to an hour, 
the latter being more than one-fifth of the available time for 
instruction ; in addition to this, lessons are almost invariably 
assigned for home-work, and a large amount of incidental 
work is always done. Yet, notwithstanding this expend- 



128 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

iture of efforr, there is abundant evidence to show that 
pupils in the upper classes of the secondary school are often 
unable to write correctly a large number of words occurring 
in ordinary discourse. It has been found that in schools 
giving a great deal of time to the subject the results are no 
better than in those devoting only a small amount. It 
seems evident that the causes of success and failure must 
be sought in (1) the selection of material for spelling 
lessons, and (2) the method of dealing with that material. 

A brief review of the history of spelling will throw some 
light on both of these points. In the beginning the subject 
of spelling was closely associated with reading — a relation 
somewhat difficult for the modern teacher to understand,, 
since spelling is a technical equipment made necessary by 
the demands of written expression, and a child's writing 
vocabulary is obviously different from his reading vocab- 
ulary. A little later, spelling was differentiated from the 
subject of reading, largely because of the appearance of 
spelling-books, which gave it a more or less independent 
existence as a formal subject. Spelling-books imposed adult 
standards in the selection of words, and disregarded the 
child's need of them. The grading of words was mechanical 
rather than psychological, the difficulty of a word being 
largely measured by the number of syllables it contained. 
The fallacy of grading words on mere length is obvious. 
An irregular word of three syllables may be more difficult 
than a regular word of five. Moreover, a child wishing to 
spell an irregular word useful to him, will learn it more 
readily than he would a regular word imposed on him by 
the spelling book. 

Not only was the material of the old-fashioned spelling 
lesson unsatisfactory, the method of dealing with it was 
equally so. The ordinary lesson consisted of the writing of 
twenty unrelated words at the teacher's dictation; these 
were afterwards corrected according to the oral spelling by 
the teacher, and a new lesson assigned for the next day with- 
out much preparation or anticipation of special difficulties. 
Correction on the part of the child consisted in writing the 
misspelled words a specified number of times. Under such 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 129 

a system the learning of spelling was a matter of individual 
study ; the so-called class lesson was really a daily examina- 
tion designed to test knowledge. The ineffectiveness of this 
drill has been frequently demonstrated by the fact that the 
act of spelling words in connected discourse is one the com- 
plexity of which far exceeds that of writing lists of words, 
and that ability acquired in drill is not always transferable 
to the exigencies of connected written discourse. That 
pupils who can pass good spelling examinations frequently 
write badly spelled compositions and letters is a matter of 
frequent comment. 

Present day methods still suffer much from inheritance. 
For instance, the ordinary spelling-book still contains some 
ten or fifteen thousand words, many of them never occur- 
ring in the child's writing vocabulary, nor even in the 
ordinary adult's. Spelling can never be perfect until it is 
automatic. But we can never secure this automatic spelling 
until we rid ourselves of the notion that the child should 
learn to speU all the words that a person might ever be 
called upon to use. The problem is to teach the children to 
spell the words which they use in their own free written 
speech. In an investigation carried on in South Dakota it 
was found that out of fifteen million words used by a 
thousand pupils (about one hundred and fifty in each grade 
above the first) in writing seventy-five thousand themes on 
subjects of interest to them, the total number of different 
words was but 4532. It was found further that the words 
most frequently misspelled occurred almost invariably in 
the lower class lists, and reappeared in the subsequent lists. 
Such an investigation points the way to a great simplifica- 
tion of spelling material, and consequently should have a 
powerful reflex upon the method of teaching the subject. 
If words generally misspelled are found in the early vocab- 
ularies of children we must pay particular attention to the 
weeding out of these words in the lower grades so that mis- 
spellings may not become fixed by the bad habits of many 
years. If the entire number of words to be taught is greatly 
reduced, the lesson of fifteen or twenty words a day must be 
abolished, because such assignments imply more words than 



130 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

the pupils command. The assignment of three or four 
words a day would probably be in better proportion. The 
time released by the reduction of the number of words in 
the lesson could then be profitably spent in the class study 
of new words. The primary aim in the spelling lesson is not 
testing but teaching; not in finding spelling errors, but in 
preventing them. Much care should be taken in presenting 
new words, and in safeguarding the child against a wrong 
first impression. If a lesson is assigned it should be not 
the mere blocking out of a number of words to be learned, 
but an exercise in which the teacher uses all her foresight in 
anticipating the various kinds of trouble the child will meet, 
focussing attention on special difficulties and suggesting 
modes of self -instruction. 

There are three factors to be taken into consideration in 
teaching a child to spell any word: the meaning, the pro- 
nunciation, the spelling. Tests which have been made show 
that it is never safe to take any of these three factors 
for granted. If a child does not know the meaning of a 
word, he cannot use it, and therefore has no need of spelling 
it. If he mispronounces it he is apt to misspell it. 
''Library," *' surprise," "February" are classic examples 
of this type of word. The ultimate spelling test must 
always be the ability of the pupil to write a word in 
expressing thought. 

The correction of spelling errors should not be left to the 
child ; it should be an inquiry into the cause and should be 
undertaken in so pedagogical and thorough a manner as to 
prevent recurrence of the error. The method of copying 
the correct spelling of a word a certain number of times has 
been found to be futile and therefore wasteful. The child 
writes a word ten or twenty times mechanically, taking 
little note of peculiarities and not associating the form with 
the other elements; meaning, pronunciation, etc. Relearn- 
ing an old word correctly, after incorrect habits have been 
formed, is vastly different from learning new words about 
which the child has no misconceptions. The child's whole 
attention is on copying, mastering a written form outside of 
its normal setting. The result is that often the child who 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 131 

has written a word correctly ten or twenty times will mis- 
spell it in a composition. The teacher should establish a 
new neural path beginning with meaning and leading 
through pronunciation to correct written form, and exer- 
cise it so well that it gradually becomes the path of least 
resistance. 

READING 

Ayres, L. p. — The Spelling Vocabularies of Personal and 

Business Letters, Russell Sage Foundation. 
Ayre, L. p. — Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling, 

Russell Sage Foundation. 
Buckingham, B. R. — Spelling Ability; Its Measurement 

and Distribution, Teachers College Contributions to 

Education, No. 59. 
Jones, W. F. — Concrete Investigation of the Material of 

English Spelling, University of South Dakota. 
SuzzALLO, H. — The Teaching of Spelling, Houghton. 

Arithmetic. — ^Mathematics has played an imposing role in 
school work as the main prop supporting the belief in 
formal discipline. Beginning almost immediately after 
entrance into school, children are drilled in the funda- 
mental operations, in the tables, and so on through the 
more and more complex mathematical processes. A 
through-going application of the doctrine of formal dis- 
cipline drills children in all the essential mathematical 
processes in the belief that the ability thus trained will 
function in any specific situation that may afterwards arise. 
Experimental psychology has done much to shake our 
belief in the transfer of training, and certainly the bad 
record made by many school children when called upon to 
apply formally-gained mathematical knowledge to the 
exigencies of daily life would seem to uphold the psychol- 
ogists. The possibilities of mathematics as a social study 
have been little appreciated. Mathematics fails of its pur- 
pose unless it is regarded as a social tool. "When it is 
divorced from its connection with social life it becomes 



132 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

unduly abstract, a matter of teehnieal relations and for- 
mula without end or use. 

Mathematics represents an absolutely indispensable 
means of measuring and thus comparing the facts of life, 
a method of standardizing the exchange value of goods. 
This point of view, if applied in the school-room, means a 
complete reconsideration of the content and method of 
teaching arithmetic. As to content, children should have 
experience in solving the types of problems that are found 
important and frequent in business and social relations. 
This involves an analysis of current social life to see what 
mathematical factors in it are of general importance. 
Although arithmetical knowledge is concerned in a great 
many of the affairs of life, its primary use is in economic 
relationships. It has to do with solving the problem of 
maintenance. In family life it is related to questions of 
food, clothing, shelter, in the relationship of expenses to 
income and savings; in industrial life it has to do with 
questions of the cost of production, of transportation and 
of distribution in relation to the price to be paid by the 
consumer. This essential economic significance of arith- 
metic is almost entirely neglected when it is regarded 
merely as a disciplinary subject. The study of food, cloth- 
ing, shelter, now becoming so popular in elementary schools, 
should consist not only in the study of the sources, the 
methods of manufacture and so on, but in a knowledge of 
what they mean to a family in the purchasing power of a 
family's income. This is the sort of knowledge that is 
needed by children if family life in the future is to be 
regulated by intelligently appreciated economic principles, 
and if the future workers of the world are to have an under- 
standing of the economic basis upon which the world order 
rests. 

Arithmetic, then, enters into the curriculum not as 
formal subject matter ; it enters whenever it can explain or 
vivify a situation. There are numerous connections be- 
tween the experience of children and business. The 
domestic plays of young children make possible dramatiza- 
tions of buying and selling into which more and more of 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 133 

real value can be naturally and gradually introduced. A 
knowledge of measures begun perhaps in the carpenter 
shop, in connection with the bench work, will necessarily be 
extended to a knowledge of the household weights and 
measures. These will develop naturally into the keeping of 
household accounts, determining the cost of food, clothing, 
the up-keep of the home, the making of budgets, calculating 
of the amount saved in buying in quantities, consideration 
of the big questions of economy in purchasing, the value of 
saving, the function of banks as a factor in modern life, 
and so on through other institutions created by society for 
the satisfaction of economic needs. The whole stability of 
social life will then be seen to depend upon adequate solu- 
tions to these problems. Arithmetic work instead of being a 
mere rehearsing of number combinations wiU become a very 
fundamental part of daily life. This does not mean that 
drill will be neglected ; knowledge of number combinations 
is important; it is a means essential to the attainment of 
our ends. Drill will fall into its rightful place. It will 
follow rather than precede problems, and it will be not the 
development of a general ability, but definitely adjusted to 
meeting the difficulty at hand. 

This view necessarily affects the use of arithmetic text- 
books. In text-books, mathematical principles are worked 
out, and problems that illustrate the principles are selected! 
and classified. It follows, therefore, that according to the 
view put forth here, the text-book must fall into a secondary 
place. The original source of arithmetic problems is some 
social situation under consideration by the class; the text- 
book may be used to furnish problems that illustrate similar 
situations requiring similar solutions. It is better still to 
utilize the home and outside experience of the children to 
furnish data for further problems. They may consult 
store-keepers, read advertisements of sales, bring in printed 
price-lists, bills from their home accounts, etc. The more 
real data the better. 



134 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 



READING 

Ball, K. F. and West, M. S. — Household Arts AritJimetic, 
School Review, 1917. 

KiRKPATEiCK, E. A. — The Use of Money, Bobbs Merrill. 

McLellan, James A., and Dewey, John. — The Psychology 
of Number, Appleton. 

Thorndike, E, L. — New Method in Arithmetic, Eand. 

Wilson, G. M, — A Survey of Social and Business Usage of 
Arithmetic, Teachers College Contributions to Educa- 
tion, No. 100. 

Wise, C. T. — A Survey of Arithmetic Problems Arising in 
Various Occupations. Elementary School Journal, 
October, 1919. 

The Organization op Subject Matter 

The formal studies are the results of racial experience. 
Just as the race formulated its generalizations through 
wider and wider experience, so the child must be led 
through experience to general conclusions, from partic- 
ulars to universals. It follows, therefore, that the 
curriculum cannot be a fixed, classified series of studies 
formulated in advance and imposed upon the child in a 
formal way. Modern psychology has made clear that the 
value of special subjects apart from use is a pedagogical 
myth. It is the child and not subject-matter which deter- 
mines the organization of the course of study. Out of the 
natural processes of experience properly guided, the cur- 
riculum as classified subject-matter should extend over a 
long period, and he achieved gradually and naturally. 
"Abandon the notion of subject-matter as something 
fixed and ready-made in itself, outside the child's experi- 
ence; cease thinking of the child's experience as some- 
thing hard and fast ; see it as something fluent, embryonic, 
vital, and we realize that the child and the curriculum 
are simply two limits that define a single process. ... It 
is continuous reconstruction of experience, moving from 
the child's present experience out into that represented 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 135 

by the organized bodies of truth that we call studies. 
On the face of it, the various studies, arithmetic, geography, 
language, botany, etc., are themselves experience — they 
are that of the race. They embody the cumulative 
outcome of the efforts, the strivings, and successes of 
the human race generation after generation. They present 
this, not as a mere accumulation, not as a miscellaneous 
heap of separate bits of experience, but in some organized 
and systematized way — that is, as reflectively formulated. 
Hence, the facts and truths that enter into the child's 
present experience, and those contained in the subject- 
matter of studies, are initial and final terms of one 
reality." (John Dewey, The Child and the Curriculumy 
pp. 16-17.*) According to this view the curriculum 
is the great moving force, the effective instrument by 
which two variables, the child and the environment, are 
mutually interrelated. By means of the curriculum, child- 
ish experience is gradually released from the narrow con- 
fines of the here and the now into universal conceptions 
of time and space. "The world of experience is one, not 
many. . . . The proper educator is reality, not convention- 
alized abstractions from reality. Hence the demand . . . 
that schooling, particularly in its earlier stages, shall be 
changed from an afflictive imposition upon life to a ration- 
ally concentrated accomplishment of a portion of life it- 
self. . . . This reality as a connected whole, related to the 
pupil, is always the natural and rational means of educa- 
tion. A sequence of studies, in the sense that the pupil 
is to be enjoined from intelligent contact with portions of 
reality until other portions have had their turn, is a mon- 
strous perversion of the conditions of education. All real- 
ity, the whole plexus of social life, is continually confront- 
ing the pupil. No 'subject' abstracted from this actual 
whole is veracious to the pupil unless he is permitted to 
see it as part of the whole. It is a misconstruction of 
reality to think and accordingly to act as though one kind 
of knowledge belongs to one age and another to another. 

*By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1902 by 
The University of Chicago. 



136 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

The whole vast mystery of life, in all its processes and 
conditions, confronts the child as really as it does the sage. 
It is the business of the educator to help the child interpret 
the part by the whole. Education from the beginning 
should be an initiation into science, language, philosophy, 
art, and political action in the largest sense, "When we 
shall have adopted a thoroughly rational pedagogy, the 
child will begin to learn everything the moment he begins 
to learn anything." (Albion Small, The Demainds of 
Sociology upon Pedagogy, pp. 21-25.*) 

The child with needs to be met is the starting point of 
instruction; the subject matter is whatever meets those 
needs. The curriculum should be a plastiq flexible instru- 
ment capable of being employed by the teacher to meet 
specific needs as they arise. Information whether it be 
geographical, historic, scientific or what not should be 
sought as it is needed. As a result of such procedure we 
should have gradually built up an organically related body 
of subject matter following the development of experience. 
**When the child lives in varied but concrete and active 
relationship to this common world, his studies are naturally 
unified. It will no longer be a problem to correlate studies. 
The teacher will not have to resort to all sorts of devices 
to weave a little arithmetic into the history lesson, and 
the like. Eelate the school to life, and all studies are of 
necessity correlated." (John Dewey, The School and 
Society, p. 80.) 

The criterion by which the curriculum must be judged 
is the psychological one — "what is that study, considered 
as a form of living immediate, personal experience ? What 
is the interest in that experience? What is the motive or 
stimulus to it? How does it act and react with reference 
to other forms of experience ? How does it gradually differ- 
entiate itself from the others? And how does it function 
so as to give them additional definiteness and richness of 
meaning? . . . 

"Until we ask such questions the consideration of the 
school curriculum is arbitrary and partial, because we have 

*Copyriglit and published hj A. Flanagan Company, Chicago. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 137 

not the ultimate criterion for decision before us. The prob- 
lem is not simply what facts a child is capable of grasping 
or what facts can be made interesting to him, but what 
experience does he himself have in a given direction. The 
subject must be differentiated out of that experience in 
accordance with its own laws. Unless we know what these 
laws are, what are the intrinsic stimuli, modes of operation 
and functions of a certain form of experience, we are prac- 
tically helpless in dealing with it. We may follow routine, 
or we may follow abstract logical consideration, but we 
have no decisive educational criterion. It is the problem of 
psychology to answer these questions ; and when we get them 
answered, we shaU know how to clarify, build up, and put 
in order the content of experience, so that in time it will 
grow to include the systematic body of facts which the 
adult's consciousness already possesses." (John Dewey, 
Psychological Aspect of the Curriculum. Educational Re- 
view, April, 1897, pp. 362-363.*) 

EEADING 

Dewey, John. — ^Article on Course of Study, Cyclopaedia of 

Education. 
Dewey, John. — The Child and the Curriculum, University 

of Chicago Press. 
Dewey, Joim. -^Psychological Aspect of the School Cur- 
riculum, Educational Review, April, 1897. 
Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, Macmillan. 

Chap. XIV. The Nature of Subject Matter. 

Dewey, John. — Moral Principles in Education, Houghton. 

Chap. IV. The Social Nature of the Course of 

Study. 

Dewey, John and Evelyn. — Schools of To-morrow, Dutton. 

Chap. IV. The Reorganization of the Curriculum. 

The Study of Social Life 

It may seem as if the point of view of curriculum 
organization suggested might easily lead to haphazard 
*By permission George H. Doran Company. 



138 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

progress and under certain circumstances to chaos. If we 
are to give up tlie neatly arranged course of study, so much 
ground covered each year, examined and reviewed upon, 
if we are instead to follow as closely as possible the leadings 
of childish interests and capacities, it is necessary to have 
some principles of organization in order to see where those 
interests are leading and thus direct them. If we refuse 
to see true scientific sequence of subject-matter in the 
arbitrary arrangement dictated by the teacher or the de- 
mands of the daily program, have we any other organiza- 
tion to suggest? 

We have chosen as our definition of education ''the con- 
tinuous reconstruction of experience with the purpose of 
widening and deepening its social content." We must find 
within this definition our principles of organization of sub- 
ject-matter. Experience has only three possible phases: 
present, past, and future. The present is the outcome of 
the past, and the basis of the future. These three phases 
should be the organization conceptions underlying the re- 
construction of experience by means of the curriculum. 
The aim is to give children : 

(I) An ever widening knowledge of their present social 
environment, radiating out from the home, through the 
neighborhood into national and international relationships. 

(II) Explanations of present situations by reference to 
their evolution. 

(III) The use of the knowledge thus gained for assessing 
present conditions and formulating hypotheses for social 
reconstruction. 

This does not mean that this classification is to be used 
in any rigid way; it means merely that the teacher has 
the conception of the way experience expands and deepens 
and that she should constantly lead the various experiences 
of her pupils out in these directions. 

READING 

GuNTON, Geohge.— Economics in the Public ScJiools, Ad- 
dresses and Proceedings of the National Education 
Association, 1901. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 139 

James, E. J. — Training for Citizenship, National Herbart 
Society, Third Year Book Supplement. 

James, E. J. — The Place of Political and Social Sciences in 
Modern Education, Annals of American Academy of 
Political and Social Science, November, 1897. 

Small and Vincent. — Introduction to the Study of Society, 
American Book Co. 

Vincent, G. E. — Social Science and the Curriculum, Ad- 
dresses and Proceedings of the National Education 
Association, 1901. 

Community Study. — The function of information is 
gradually to extend children's experience by constantly 
making clear the relationship between things known and 
personally experienced and things at a distance. Children's 
ability to construct correct pictures of things at a distance 
is based upon ideas gained in a vivid and real form in 
their own home neighborhood. Hence the necessity of 
utilizing to the fullest extent every phase of the home 
neighborhood to build up the conception of a type of social 
life resulting from certain cultural and natural conditions. 
"The social desideratum is that the developing member of 
society shall become analytically and synthetically intelli- 
gent about the society to which he belongs. The precision 
of his social intelligence in general depends upon the exact- 
ness of his knowledge of details in the life which he most 
intimately shares. Observation of the structure, functions, 
and forces of life in one's own community is the normal 
beginning of true and large social intelligence and action. '"' 
(Albion Small, The Demands of Sociology upon Pedagogy, 
pp. 28-29.) The source material of social life lies all about 
us. ''The puzzling world is the student's own world and 
he may as well begin to resolve the puzzle in his own street 
or school district." (Small and Vincent, Introduction to 
the Study of Society, p. 16.) 

The initial point of departure should be the study of 
those particular phases of group life which fall well 
within the circle of the child's personal affairs. One of 
the first and most fundamental relationships that need to 



140 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

be made explicit in the child's experience are those within 
the home and the relationship between the family and 
the neighborhood. This is important for a number of 
reasons. The family group is the first social group with 
which the child has definitely established social relations, 
and in connection with which all his knowledge must 
function socially in his every day experiences. The child 
when he -first comes to school knows related things only 
in connection with home life. The family group of each 
child is the focussing point of his relations to the world 
environment. It must always remain a channel through 
which social experience comes to him. Moreover it repre- 
sents in little all the important elements of social rela- 
tionships. It is through family life that the child is 
initiated by experience into the social life of his time. 
It is clear that if the aim of instruction is to socialize 
a child's experience, its first task is to develop an under- 
standing of the social relationships illustrated in family 
life. School life then grows naturally out of home life. 

Social considerations also make this an important task 
for education. The family is the permanent social unit; 
it is the means by which social life is advanced. The 
life of society circles around the family, supplying its 
needs, broadening its outlook so that it is not only physic- 
ally nourished but psychically enriched and may give back 
to society a better solution of the social problem. A 
more enlightened understanding of the values bound up 
in family life is certainly desirable from a social point 
of view. By beginning with family relationships and 
radiating out into wider and wider circles of relationships, 
the school will give socialized meaning to children's ex- 
periences, constantly direct their attention to new aspects, 
and lead the way to new experiences, which will then have 
significance because their relationship to the old is 
realized. 

The home plays spontaneously engaged in by children 
in the play period, offer unending opportunities for devel- 
oping through discussions an understanding of the social 
relationships involved. If organized around this axisi 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 141 

matters of food, clothing, and shelter are seen to be 
integrally related to vital experience. The family has 
the responsibility of fulfilling certain functions if social 
life is to be sustained. The iinportant question is: what 
does the family need to keep itself going as a social 
organization? It must possess itself of material goods 
to satisfy its needs. Hence one of the first undertakings 
of the family is providing a shelter and making such addi- 
tions to it as will provide not only the necessities of life, 
but those that will make possible a desirable form of 
social life. It is essential if any fixed and orderly rela- 
tions are to result, for the family to establish permanent 
relations with the land. Consideration of this matter 
will involve showing how the environmental factor enters 
in to modify the satisfaction of human needs. The home 
is adapted not only to environmental but to economic 
conditions. In order that the home may be maintained 
certain activities must be engaged in to support it. Money 
must be earned not only for present necessities, but enough 
to provide against future emergencies. The family will 
then be seen to have a direct relation to the production 
of wealth. In order that the family may the more ade- 
quately satisfy its needs, a certain division of labor and 
certain forms of cooperation have been worked out in 
home relations. Individual rights are respected, but there 
are certain duties, indispensable to social harmony, re- 
quired of each member of the family. A certain regula- 
tory system has been evolved for maintaining social order. 
The home is not, however, an isolated unit complete 
in itself. Home life connects up with the community at 
innumerable points. They are inextricably bound to- 
gether. Each family by virtue of some economic arrange- 
ment receives through the channels of transportation the 
material goods necessary to cairy on its life. The direct 
connection between the home and community may be 
made by making a study of the needs of the family and 
the means that have been established in community life 
for satisfying them. The home forms immediate contacts 
with a great many persons — the grocer, the milkman, the 



142 ' THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

carpenter, and so on — who weave a network connecting 
the home and the community. Each person considered 
is seen to touch a great many other persons each of whom 
is rendering some service. For instance the carpenter 
is able to give all his time to building because the grocer, 
the tailor and a number of other people provide him 
with food, clothing and all the other things that he needs. 
Consideration of these people leads to endless inquiries 
about the people who do this work : how they live, where 
they get their products, what they earn, what their prob- 
lems are, leading further and further into the industrial 
and social life of the community and exemplifying the 
principles of division of labor and cooperation. 

Prom their trips into the neighborhood the children 
will perhaps at first gain a general confused impression 
of activity as characteristic of social life. The streets 
are filled with people going in various directions, wagons 
and trucks are threading the streets, and so on. The child 
*'. . . knows the railroad with its long trains of freight 
cars which load and unload at the station; the fast ex- 
press that stops scarcely a moment to let off and take 
on passengers. If he lives near a large river, the steamers 
and sailing vessels are familiar objects, and these, he 
knows, carry goods and passengers like the trains. Maybe 
there is a canal near his home on which the long, clumsy- 
looking boats are towed by horses and mules. In the 
village or town in which he lives there are buildings of many 
kinds — great factories and mills where things are made 
and grain is ground into flour, stores where things are 
sold, homes, and schools and churches. Then there are the 
farms about the neighborhood with their broad fields of 
wheat and corn, and their cattle and horses. No matter 
where he turns he sees work of some kind going on. Some of 
the people are buying goods, others selling them ; some work 
in the mills, others on the farms, some run the boats and 
trains, others are building houses or quarrying rocks or 
cutting down the trees and sawing them up into lumber. 
Everywhere it is work, and the child soon learns that he 
must work in order to live." (S. Trotter, The Social Func- 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 143 

Hon of Geography, National Herbart Society, Fourth Year 
Book, p. 64.) 

To the child it should appear that he is learning about 
people and what they are doing, but as the study of 
the community progresses this seemingly chaotic activity 
should be seen to be dominated by fundamental purposes, 
and the great majority of men to take definite places 
in a great social organization. The story of a community 
is the story of how men cooperate to supply their needs. 
This concept should be developed not in any case by 
statements or generalizations, but by constantly drawing 
the attention of children to the innumerable concrete in- 
stances about them that illustrate the principle. The 
activities carried on by the children in school and their 
trips into the neighborhood offer constant opportunity 
for giving insight through discussion into the mechanism 
of social life. The general plan should be to lay a broad 
basis in experience by inductive methods, and to make 
deductions whenever sufficient illustrations have been met 
to warrant summarizing. For instance, when a sufficient 
number of people supplying us with food have come to 
the children's notice, it might be well to make a summary 
of all the people who supply us with food, and thus show 
our dependence on others for food. The same procedure 
could be followed with other topics. Or, after sufficient 
knowledge has accumulated through experience, it might 
be well to summarize by considering a meal and seeing 
all the dependencies involved in it — or in a day's experi- 
ence from morning till night. 

The study of the community should include not only 
a consideration of the provisions for satisfying man's 
material needs, but also those for elevating social life. 
The relationship between social life and its economic basis 
should be constantly pointed out. Political institutions 
should be viewed as the means evolved to regulate social 
life so that it may develop most advantageously. The 
study of the community as a whole when it has reached 
that point might be summarized as a community survey. 
For older children who understand the significance of 



144 



THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 



maps, the making of a social map of the neighborhood 
showing the location of stores, factories, parks, railroads, 
and all the other provisions for supplying community 
needs, is an impressive way of summarizing the social 
resources of the neighborhood. 

Following is a tabular statement of the typical way 
in which a community attempts to satisfy its needs. Since 
a community is such a complicated network, in which 
many elements overlap, it is difficult to reduce it to any 
classified form. This classification is not intended to be 
anything more than a suggestion which may perhaps be 
helpful in clarifying the idea. 



COMMUNITY RESPONSES TO FAMILY NEEDS 



Needs 
I. Economic (Physical Needs) 



Responses 



Foods (kinds) 



i Farming 
Dairying 
Fishing 
(Slaughter 
Canning Factories 
Bakeries, etc. 
Transportation (See special heading) 
( Markets 
\ Grocery stores, etc. 



Distribution. 



Clothing (kinds 
and accessories) 



Preparation. 



Production . 



( Cooking 
I Serving 
Cotton-raising 
Flax-raising 
Silk culture 

Sheep and cattle raising 
Transformation — Factories, etc. 
Transportation (see special heading) 
Distribution — Department stores, etc. 

(Dressmakers 
Tailors 
Milliners, etc. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 



145 



Needs 



Shelter (and 
furnishiBgs) 



Responses 

{LumberiBg 
Mining 
Quarrying, etc. 
("Mills 

I Glass-making, etc. 
Transportation. (see special heading) 
Builders 



Production . 



Transformation 



Supply. 



Transportation 



Conservation of 
Wealth 



Supply stores 

Contractors 

Architects 

' Streets 
Roads 
Railroads 
Water traffic 
Vehicles 

f Banks 

I Brokers, etc. 

^ Insurance 



II, Social (Need fob Social Intercoxjese) 

' Post office 



Communication 



Education. 



Recreation. 



Religion. 



Pathological 
Phenomena 



Telephone 
Telegraph 
Wireless 
Newspaper 
Books, etc. 

(Schools 
Colleges 
Libraries, etc. 

f Clubs 
Theatres 
Movmg Pictures 
Art Galleries 
Music 
Parks 

f Churches 

I Charity Organizations 

f Insane asylums 
\ Poor houses, etc. 



146 



THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 



Protection and 
defence of life 
and property 



III. Political (The Means of Regulating I and II). 

Needs Responses ' 

1. Against fire — Fire depart- 
ment. 

' Garbage 
Sewerage 

2. Against Drainage 
disease Board of 

Health 
. Hospitals 

3. Against r Police de- 
anti- social ] partment 
persons [, Jails 

r Laws 
Government. . . ■! Courts 

I Lawyers, etc. 
A knowledge of the physical characteristics of the 
neighborhood, should be developed as they are observed 
in their effect upon the life of the community. In con- 
nection with the occupations carried on in the neighbor- 
hood, the children may be led to discover the reason for 
their location in the physical advantages afforded. Con- 
sideration of the absence of certain necessities in the 
neighborhood and the reason for their absence will make 
clear the necessity for transportation and x3ommerce. In 
tracing necessities to their sources and discussing the 
geographic conditions necessary to their growth and 
manufacture, we may gradually build up a concept of 
the influence of nature upon the life of man, and of the 
interdependence of people not only upon the home neigh- 
borhood but upon the whole world. 

The complexity of contemporary social life is, however, 
so great that it is difficult for children to grasp its funda- 
mental significance, so that it is frequently necessary to 
analyze the situation into simpler elements. By going 
back into the past and showing how various social ar- 
rangements came into existence in response to man's 
needs, and by tracing their development step by step, 
their present complex aspect may be explained. It is 
for this reason that the study of primitive life is of great 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 147 

importance in throwing light upon the origin of a number 
of the necessities of our every day life. It may be taken 
up with great profit in connection with the study of 
community life. Such a motive indeed presents the only 
legitimate excuse for undertaking the study, and suggests 
the type of work to be undertaken. In primitive life we 
have man of a rather simple type in direct contact with 
the forces of nature, and face to face with fundamental 
economic and social problems. It is easy for even young 
children to grasp the significance of the situation, and 
to appreciate the ingenuity and inventive genius of man, 
by which he brings the forces and resources of nature 
under the control of his purposes, and thus lays the founda- 
tion for our own supremacy. By such a study children 
may lay a broad basis for understanding the economic 
foundations of their own community life. If undertaken 
for this purpose the work will take on a more serious 
aspect than is characteristic of such work in many schools, 
where the object seems to be nothing more than to interest 
children in the picturesque and bizarre features of primi- 
tive life. It will suggest, too, a substitution of more 
scientific reading matter for many of the school texts 
which give a highly diluted if not altogether false idea 
of the period. Fortunately we have a wealth of anthro- 
pological material which enables us to see our customs, 
usages, and social institutions in early stages of develop- 
ment, to see how they came into being, and what their 
reflex was in advancing social life. And there are a 
number of good books written for children based upon 
authoritative sources. The children should be led to re- 
produce imaginatively the situation of the people under 
consideration. They should be made fully acquainted 
with the conditions under which they lived, and brought 
face to face with the same problems. They may then 
try to find solutions to these problems, and by constant 
comparison between their solutions and those of the 
people studied, they may gain a vivid realization of the 
ingenuity of primitive peoples in thinking out solutions 
to their problems. Step by step they can trace the needs 



148 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

that called forth certain modes of activity; they caH be 
led to understand how each successive invention lifted 
man to a higher social plane and enabled him to conquer 
new forces of nature hitherto undiscovered; they can see 
the beginnings of those fundamental laws of associated 
living — division of labor and cooperation in a common 
cause. Consideration of how men have subjugated nature 
by learning its secrets, how they have learned to coooperate 
with one another for common ends, gives the key to the 
study of history; it gives some principle of selection 
among the great mass of material that is now available, 
indicating what is essential and what is trivial in the 
mass of facts that have come down to us from the past.' 
''"When history is conceived as dynamic, as moving, its 
economic and industrial aspects are emphasized. These 
are but technical terms which express the problem with 
which humanity is unceasingly engaged; how to live, 
how to master and use nature so as to make it tributary 
to the enrichment of human life. The great advances in 
civilization have come through those manifestations of 
intelligence which have lifted man from his precarious 
subjection to nature, and revealed to him how he may 
make its forces cooperate with his own purposes. The 
social world in which the child now lives is so rich and 
full that it is not easy to see how much it cost, how much 
effort and thought lie back of it. Man has a tremendous 
equipment ready at hand. The child may be led to trans- 
late these ready-made resources into fluid terms; he may 
be led to see man face to face with nature, without in- 
herited capital, without tools, without manufactured ma- 
terials. And, step by step, he may follow the processes 
by which man recognized the needs of his situation, 
thought out the weapons and instruments thai enable him 
to cope with them ; and may learn how these new resources 
opened new horizons of growth and created new problems." 
(John Dewey, The School and Society, pp. 156-157.*) Such 

*By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyriglit 1900 by 
The University of Chicago. Copyright 1900 and 1915 by John 
Dewey. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 149 

a method of historical study is valuable in giving the child 
an insight into what might be called the technique of 
progress. 

Since the object of historical study is not an enumeration 
of the various external changes that have taken place in 
the past, as is the case when history is conceived of as 
chronology, it is not necessary with young children, at 
least, that historical sequence be observed. Whenever prob- 
lems arise with reference to the child's natural and social 
environment which require the use of historical subject- 
matter for their solution, the subject-matter may be selected 
from the racial experiences of any age. Whenever a study 
of past conditions is made, care should be exercised to 
bring the minds of the children back to the present situa- 
tion. Constant comparisons between the present and the 
past will bring out the advance in social conditions brought 
about by historical changes. 

Besides the study of primitive life local history also 
becomes of great importance in explaining community char- 
acteristics. It may be developed by means of trips to 
places of historic interest in the neighborhood, and by 
studying real historic documents and relics in museums 
and other places. Such work is valuable in giving children 
experience in the methods of real historical inquiry and 
research, and in doing away with the idea that history is 
something which resides in books. 

These vivid first hand contacts with the industrial, social 
and political life that touch the child on every hand should 
furnish a wealth of facts from which rational relation- 
ships should be realized in the complex world in which the 
child finds himself. If the study of the home community 
has been developed in accordance with the requirements of 
the dynamic point of view, children will not be left with the 
idea that the community is a static organization. Through 
historical study they will come to look upon society as an 
evolving process dependent upon the interaction of certain 
forces. The value of the genetic method of studying history 
is precisely that it contributes to this point of view. The 
children should see their present community as the outcome 



150 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

of the interplay of certain social forces in the past. They 
should be led to see that there are certain conditions and 
problems which have been created by the growing com- 
plexity of social life, and which we have as yet not been 
successful in solving. In discussions of these problems 
points of view should be developed as to methods of solving 
them. 

READING 

TJie Social Studies in Secondary Education. U. S. Bureau 

of Education, Bulletin, 1916, No. 28. 
The Teaching of Community Civics. U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
cation, Bulletin, 1915, No. 23. 
Aronovici, C. — The Social Survey, Harper Press, Phila. 
Btington, M. — What Social Workers Should Know about 

Their Own Communities, Russell Sage Foundation. 
Camp, K. B. — Primitive History in Primary Groups of 

the Laboratory School, Elementary School Teacher, 

October, 1903. 
Dana, J. C. — The Study of a City in the Schools of That 

City, Pedagogical Seminary, 1911. 
Dewey, John. — The School and Society. University of 

Chicago Press. 

Chap. VIII. The Aim of History in Elementary 
Education. 
Dunn, a. W. — Civic Education in Elementary Schools as 

Illustrated in iTidianapolis, U. S. Bureau of Education, 

Bulletin, 1915, No. 17. 
Hill, M. — The Teaching of Civics, Houghton. 
Todd, A. J. — The Teaching of Sociology to Undergraduates, 

Proceedings American Sociological Society, 1918. 
Trotter, S. — The Social Function of Geography, National 

Herbart Society, Fourth Year Book. 

Our National Life. — The laboratory study of the home 
community developed through first-hand information repre- 
sents a type study showing the social elements in a com- 
munity as responses for the more effective satisfaction of 
the common needs of the people in it. The information so 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 151 

gained acts as a body of reference material valuable in 
understanding places at a distance. By constant compar- 
ison of regions further away with the home community, in 
which likenesses and differences are noted and the reason 
for them sought, it is possible to develop an understanding 
of places not in the immediate experience of the children. 
Certain social facts will be seen to be common to all com- 
munities; others will be seen to be characteristic of the 
peculiar conditions of the place under consideration. By 
this process we can gradually build up the child's relation- 
ship to city, nation, and the world. Among the larger 
social units to be early considered is our own country, since 
it is the one with which the child through his own travels 
and those of his family and friends has probably already 
first-hand experience, and it is the one with which his later 
experience will be most intimately concerned and about 
which it is necessary for him to have more detailed basic 
knowledge. 

When the United States is studied as so much geography, 
so much history, so much civil government, the knowledge 
thus gained tends to remain stratified ; it is not organized 
into a unity that gives a conception of national life as an 
organic whole. National life may be looked upon as a form 
of social life that is organized into a political unity. It is 
the result of the interplay of many factors, but they may 
all, perhaps, be looked upon as the result of the interaction 
of the following: (1) The People (that is, a people with a 
certain experience back of them, which has resulted in a 
certain cultural inheritance and certain cultural ideals)^ 
(2) The Territory (that is, the peculiar features of the 
land inhabited, which offer certain obstacles or advantages 
to economic and social development). (3) The Form of 
Government (that is, the type of regulatory control worked 
out in order to facilitate relations between (1) and (2) ). 
The study of the United States, then, should be the study 
of the particular form of nationality developed here in thi^ 
particular territory offering certain national advantages 
and disadvantages, and of the type of political control 
worked out as the result of our peculiar national conditions. 



152 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

The study should broaden out into a wide survey of our 
industrial and social institutions with accompanying en- 
vironmental explanations. Care should be taken not to 
develop the idea that the United States is an isolated unit ; 
on the contrary, it should be seen to be bonnd at innumer- 
able points to all the other nations of the world by the 
strong bonds of economic dependence. 

Explanation of every point discussed makes constant 
recourse to history inevitable. Here again precautions 
should be taken to show the close connection between 
America and the rest of the world. America was discovered 
^ by Europeans in their effort to find a shorter route to India 
and the riches of the East; it has been built up by suc- 
cessive waves of migration from Europe, and its population 
is being constantly fed by a steady stream of immigration 
from all nations. ''The early history of our country as 
usually told is little more than the narrative of the exploits 
of Columbus, Ponce de Leon, De Soto, Champlain, Mar- 
quette, Joilet, La Salle, John Smith, and a host of other men 
who stand out as discoverers and explorers. . . . The 
economic and industrial condition of Europe, which was the 
direct cause of the period of discovery ; the fact that America 
was never sought, but stumbled on ; that when found it was 
not wanted; that much, of its exploration was due to per- 
sistent efforts to get a way around it, to discover a northwest 
or a southwest passage to India, are lost sight of in the doings 
of particular men. . . . The motive for discovery, the effect 
of discovery upon the geographical ideas of the time, the 
reasons why the four great maritime powers of Europe came 
into possession of our country, why the Dutch acquired the 
Hudson, the Spaniards occupied our Gulf Coast, the 
English the Atlantic Coast, and the French the Great Lakes 
and the Mississippi, and the profound and lasting influence 
this particular arrangement of European settlers had on our 
later history, these are the things it concerns us to know, 
rather than the doings of particular men and the Indian 
wars of particular colonies. 

"A knowledge of the industrial and economic condition 
of Europe and Great Britain again is necessary to a correct 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 153 

understanding of the period of colonization ; what drove the 
settlers to Jamestown and Quebec, what sort of people they 
were, what customs, usages, institutions, political ideas they 
brought and planted in the new world, is all important . . . 
The steady movement of the English westward from the 
Atlantic; the spread of the French into the valley of the 
Mississippi and their occupation of it to the headwaters of 
the Ohio ; the great difference in the manner of occupation 
by these two peoples, the French building forts and taking 
military occupation; the English building towns, opening 
up farms and taking possession by actual settlement, the 
effect this difference had on the long struggle for possession,, 
are rarely, if ever, presented to the school-boy. . . . 

''He should see our country as it was when Washington 
was first inaugurated, a country vast in extent with its 
people gathered on a narrow strip along the seaboard and 
just beginning their march westward; he should see them 
destitute of manufactures, of machines, of great industries, 
of easy and rapid means of communication; he should see 
the arts and sciences in a rudimentary state, and he should 
see the differences in habits, customs, occupations, which 
were peculiar to the people of the eastern states, the middle 
states and the south. The attention of the student should 
be called to the fact that innumerable trades, occupations, 
industries, professions, callings that now afford a livelihood 
to millions of people had then no existence; that articles 
and conveniences with which he is perfectly familiar and 
which have come to be looked on as necessities of life 
were then unknown, and that the lot of every man in every 
walk of life was far harder than at present. When this 
condition has been shown and understood, the boy should 
follow step by step the wonderful progress from what was 
to what is. He should see our people hurrying westward 
in three great streams pushing the frontier before them 
across the Mississippi Valley, the Mississippi River, over 
the great plains to the Pacific, building cities, founding 
states, developing the resources of our country. He should 
see the northern stream engaged in a thousand forms of 
diversified industry, and the southern stream ignoring com- 



154 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

merce and manufactures and devoting its energies to grow- 
ing cotton and tobacco, and he should be made to see how 
from these two opposite economic conditions grew in time 
two separate and distinct people, with utterly different 
ideas, institutions, customs, and purposes in life, and when 
this has been made clear to him he will understand the 
Civil War. To present such a history in slices four years 
thick and labelled with the names of presidents, or as a dry 
record of Congress and the doings of the political leaders 
of the hour is to destroy its meaning and render it valueless. 
To tell a child that Fulton invented the steamboat, Howe 
the sewing-machine, Morse the telegraph. Hoe the steam 
printing-press. Bell the telephone, Goodyear vulcanized 
India-rubber, is idle if the story stops there. The thing to 
be impressed upon him is that these great inventions and 
discoveries . . . have bettered the condition of civilized men 
everywhere, and are contributions to human welfare mad( 
by America." (J. B. McMaster, The Social Function of 
United States History. National Herbart Society, Fourth 
Year Book, pp. 26-30.*) 

As American history is frequently taught, the seeds of 
dislike and distrust of other nations are often sown. The 
pupil ' ' can proceed through his course of American history 
with no suspicion of Europe save as a place from which 
discoverers set sail and colonists departed, and as the abode 
of men whose evil plans got good Americans into wars, and 
whose affairs and governments in general are such that the 
less Americans have to do with them the better. ... It 
must be taught for what it is — largely a reflection of Euro- 
pean movements and problems . . . which are still affected 
by every change in the life of Europe, and which correspond 
to what is going on all over the world because of the opera- 
tion of world-wide forces. . . . Our own past history 
appears as a drama between the angels of light and the 
demons of darkness, between forces of freedom and enslave- 
ment, where victory has ever been on the side of the right. 
Our constitution and institutions generally are the embodi- 

*By permission Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, 
lUinoiB. Copyright 1898 by Chas. A. McMurry. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 155 

ment of the achieved and final victory of good ... we do 
need some way of making intellectually clear that there never 
was* a struggle between pure good and pure evil; and that 
there is now, as there always has been, a struggle between 
interests entrenched in law, institutions, and social conven- 
tion, and the requirements of further enlightenment and 
emancipation." (John Dewey, The Schools and Social Pre- 
paredness, The New Republic, May 6, 1916, pp. 15-16.*) An 
understanding of the real significance of our national his- 
tory, a realization of how our national ideals have been 
built up, is essential to a rational solution of present-day 
problems, and as a background for the better organization 
of social and economic conditions so that the nation may be 
better able to do its work in the world. We must have a 
clear understanding of what Americanism is, or we shall 
scarcely be successful in our efforts to further it. 

READING 

Dewey, John. — Nationalizing Education, Addresses and 

Proceedings of the National Education Association, 

1916. 
Dewey, John. — The ScJiools, and Social Preparedness, New 

Republic, May 6, 1916. 
McMaster, J. B. — The Social Function of United States 

History, National Herbart Society, Fourth Year Book. 

The Study of Other Nations. — Just as the home com- 
munity is a type for understanding the community ele- 
ments of any place far away, the national unit becomes a 
type for the study of other nationalities. The study of 
social life in other countries has become a part of the cur- 
riculum of many elementary schools, beginning quite early 
with stories of child life in various parts of the world. Too 
often in selecting these studies the picturesque and bizarre 
features of other nations are specialized — such as the 
wooden shoes and windmills of the Dutch, the quaint cus- 
toms of Japanese home life, and the like. There is great 

*By permission The New Kepublic. 



156 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

danger that the over-emphasis of these features may give a 
very incorrect impression of the life of foreign peoples. A 
more rational standard for studying foreign nations would 
be something inherent in the experience of the children. 
There are innumerable points of contact between the ex- 
perience of children and conditions in remote parts of the 
world which can be made the starting-point of instruction. 
In the case of children of foreign-born parents, this might 
be the consideration of the lands from which they came to 
America; current events furnish constant connections that 
might be made use of; and the study of the home com- 
munity and our own country leads constantly to foreign 
countries in tracing the things we need in our homes to the 
places where they originated. These points of contact can 
easily be made use of to extend the experience of the chil- 
dren to a consideration of the types of social life in various 
parts of the world which are responses to varying environ- 
mental and cultural conditions. Constant comparison of 
points of similarity and difference should lead to a broader 
and broader comprehension of the bases upon which various 
forms of social life rest. The study of the industrial con- 
nection between various nations ought to give an idea of the 
whole world inevitably bound together by the ties of eco- 
nomic necessity. 

Ideas of present conditions should be strengthened by 
constant excursions into the past for explanations. A study 
of the people of various nations and their origin and 
development, alone leads to comprehension of their various 
characteristics. Gradually out of such historical study 
there should develop a realization of the great events that 
have worked together for the civilization of the world, and 
of the particular contributions of the great nations of the 
past. In this way the children may come to understand 
under what conditions and in what directions we may pro- 
gress most rapidly. "Society is to-day engaged in a 
tremendous and unprecedented effort to better itself in 
manifold ways. . . . The part that each of us can play in 
forwarding some phase of this reform will depend upon our 
understanding of existing conditions and opinion, and these 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 157 

can only be explained, as has been shown, by following more 
or less carefully the processes that produced them. We must 
develop historical-mindedness on a far more generous scale 
than hitherto, for this will add a still deficient element in our 
intellectual equipment and will promote rational progress 
as nothing else can do. The present has hitherto been the 
willing victim of the past ; the time has now come when it 
should turn on the past and exploit it in the interests oi 
advance." (J. H. Robinson, The New History, pp. 23-24.) 
By a study of national histories, by reading for enjoy- 
ment the literature and folk-lore of the peoples studied, by 
listening to their music, by learning of their customs, laws, 
religion, and scientific achievements, and their contributions 
to art — by thus relieving the life of any people and appre- 
ciating their problems and their accomplishments, the chil- 
dren will come to have an intelligent regard for that people. 
They will see the ideals and characteristics of one nation, 
not as better or worse than ours, but as different — the out- 
come of a specific set of conditions. They should gain an 
idea of the value of these characteristics not as forces to 
separate people, but to unite them, giving a variety to social 
life that would otherwise be lacking. It is only by such 
study that a narrow provincial interpretation of patriotism 
can be made to give way to a bigger, broader conception of 
it. "In all our thoughts we think in terms of our own 
social environment. But the activities of the human mind 
exhibit an infinite variety of form among the peoples of the 
world. In order to understand these clearly, the student 
jnust endeavor to divest himself entirely of opinions and 
emotions based upon the peculiar social environment into 
which he is bom. He must adapt his own mind, so far as 
feasible, to that of the people whom he is studying. The 
more successful he is in freeing himself from the bias based 
on the group of ideas that constitute the civilization in 
which he lives, the more successful he will be in interpreting 
the beliefs and actions of man. He must follow lines of 
thought that are new to him. He must participate in new 
emotions, and understand how, under unwonted conditions, 
both lead to actions. Beliefs, customs, and the response of 



158 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

the individual to the events of daily life, give ns ample 
opportunity to observe the manifestations of the mind of 
man under varying conditions." (Franz Boas, The Mind 
of Primitive Man, pp. 97-98.) 

Mr. Clarence Kingsley has given in ''School and Society" 
a suggestive account of how this kind of study might 
be conducted in school: "The class would begin with 
the study of the Russian people of to-day, their social 
institutions, their industrial and agricultural organization, 
their manners and customs, and their national character- 
istics as revealed in their present-day contributions to the 
arts and sciences. We would then turn to the his- 
torian and ask him to tell us what he can about the events 
and causes that have made the people what they are to-day. 
We have here a basis for the selection of significant his- 
torical material. We would then turn to the geographer 
and we would ask him to tell us what he can about the 
elements in the geographical location that have helped in 
the making of this people. 

Our study of the Eussian people would not, however, end 
here, but instead the really fruitful part would begin at this 
point, for the class would now be in a position to gain some 
conception of the possible development of this nation in 
the family of nations. And then in view of this compre- 
hensive study,- they should discuss the relations that should 
exist between our nation and the Russian people as a 
nation. . . . 

"We should not, however, omit a study of typical back- 
ward peoples. I would use the term backward rather than 
semi-civilized because the term backward is consistent with 
an ethical attitude toward these peoples ; for in our study 
of them we should lay particular stress upon the attempt 
to find in them the possibilities that will, if they are 
properly treated, lead them to make their own distinctive 
contribution to civilization. . , . 

"The danger to be avoided above all others is the ten- 
dency to claim that one nation has a sweeping superiority 
over others. The claim of such superiority among nations 
as among individuals is a sure cause of irreconcilable 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS l5d 

hatred. The cure for this narrow and partisan attitude is 
to be found in the broad conception that humanity is 
greater than any one nation. 

' ' The idea should be developed that every nation has, or 
may have, something of worth to contribute to other nations 
and to humanity as a whole, and that consequently human- 
ity would be incomplete and one-sided without that contri- 
bution. This conception, when thoroughly inculcated, 
would lead to a national respect of other nations, and would 
cause us to regard the continued existence and development 
o£ all nations as essential to the development of civilization. 
We cannot expect that a principle so fundamental and 
comprehensive can be inculcated in the abstract, but 
through a specific study of many nations, the achievements 
and possibilities of each of which have been studied in the 
concrete, this idea may become established. 

''This conception of the supplementary value of the dis- 
similarities of different nations and peoples, together with 
the ideal of human brotherhood which is generally thought 
of in terms of essential similarity, should do much to estab- 
lish genuine internationalism, free from sentimentality, 
founded on fact, and actually operative in the affairs of 
nations. . . . While the pupil may not learn very much 
history as such from this new course, the history he does 
learn will be organized around problems that are of vital 
importance to-day, and the teachers will have need of all 
the knowledge, historical, sociological and geographical, 
that they possess and can acquire about the people to be 
studied. . . . 

"... the results which I believe should follow from this 
study when organized rightly and conducted in the proper 
spirit : (1) It would tend to reduce friction in international 
relations, as such friction often results from popular clamor 
born of a lack of understanding of foreign nations. Our 
friendly relations with Japan have been jeopardized by just 
such clamor. (2) It would help us to a truer understanding 
and appreciation of the foreigners who come to our shores. 
Our assimilation of immigrants is seriously retarded because 
so few of us understand them. (3) It would lead us to be 



160 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

more helpful in our relations with backward peoples, be- 
cause it would help us to value them on the basis of their 
latent possibilities rather than on a basis of their small 
present achievement. This gain would be of special value 
in dealing with the Negro and the Indian. (4) It would 
rid us of the false conceit which prevents us, on the one 
hand, from criticizing ourselves, and, on the other hand, 
from profiting by the achievements of other nations. For 
instance, we fail to see ourselves as the South American 
countries see us, and we have been slow to learn the lessons 
of cooperative enterprises that we could learn from Den- 
mark. (5) Other nations, recognizing our breadth of spirit 
and willingness to adopt their achievements, would in 
turn be all the more ready to adopt the national ideas for 
which we stand." (C. D. Kingsley, The Study of Nations: 
Its Possibilities as a Social Study, School and Society, Jan. 
8, 1916, pp. 38-41.*) 

Education has been made to serve the cause of national 
competition; it can be made to serve the cause of national 
cooperation. It is especially necessary to the well-being of 
American social life that American children should be 
brought up with this ideal, since America is by its very 
make-up a compound of a great variety of peoples. Unless 
this attitude is developed by schools, national and social 
antagonisms will continue to flourish within our own bor- 
ders, and it will be impossible to work out any adequate 
means for people of various racial stock to work har- 
moniously together. Moreover, we must have a more 
rational estimate of the national integrity and the legiti- 
mate aspirations of the various nations, if we are to be in 
any way prepared to cope with the closer and closer inter- 
national relations that will develop in the future. We must 
learn to see beneath the varied expressions of nationality an 
essential human likeness; we must gain a consciousness of 
the common aims and interests of mankind. It is only by 
establishing common bonds of sympathy between nations 
that we can look forward with any assurance of security to 

*By permission The Science Press. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 161 

a time when ''peace and good will toward men" will flourish 
upon the earth. 

READING 

KiNGSLEY, C. D. — The Study of Nations: School and So- 
ciety, January 8, 1916. 

TuELL, H, E. — The Study of Nations, History Teachera 
Magazine, October, 1917. 

TuELL, H. E. — The Study of Nations, an Experiment in 
Social Education, Houghton. 

Social Philosophy 

The term philosophy, associated as it is in our 
minds with a particularly advanced and remote type 
of human being, may seem like a large term to use in 
connection with the affairs of little children; but it is one 
of the functions of the dynamic point of view to restore 
philosophy to experience. According to the new point of 
view "philosophy is a method, not a remote standard of 
reference." Social life presents numerous conflicts and 
apparent inconsistencies, and our experiences stand out as 
so many isolated and detached fragments unless we connect 
them through processes of reflection into a philosophic con- 
cept. Every action is presumably based upon a philosophic 
assumption of some kind, however vaguely it may be 
defined: it involves a summing up of past experience and 
evaluating it for use in a present situation ; it includes some 
thought of future consequences. There is an innate ten- 
dency of the human mind to make such evaluations and 
syntheses of experience, from the unconscious grcpings of 
the little child to the purposeful consideration and reflec- 
tion of the mature person. 

The ability to penetrate beneath every-day life, to see 
relationships, to harmonize apparent conflicts, to view the 
events of experience as part of a great related scheme 
should be consciously developed by education. It should 
aid pupils in organizing information into some significant 
whole that should act as a working theory of life. This 



162 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

synthesis is often left to chanee, to the planless effort of the 
maturing pupil to form into some coherent whole the phe- 
nomena which his daily life presents. When this is omitted, 
one of the most serious responsibilities of education is 
neglected. "If we are willing to conceive education as the 
process of forming fundamental dispositions, intellectual 
and emotional, toward nature and fellow-men, philosophy 
may even be defined as the general theory of education. 
Unless a philosophy is to remain symbolic — or verbal — or a 
sentimental indulgence for a few, or else mere arbitrary 
dogma, its auditing of past experience and its program of 
values must take effect in conduct. . . . On the other side, 
the business of schooling tends to become a routine empir- 
ical affair unless its aims and methods are animated by such 
a broad and sympathetic survey of its place in contem- 
porary life as it is the business of philosophy to provide." 
(John Dewey, Democracy and Education, pp. 883-384.) 

The study of existing social life, beginning with the 
home community and radiating through the world, supple- 
mented by a knowledge of how it has been built up through 
the workings of great evolutionary forces, furnishes a 
wealth of facts from which should emerge a consciousness 
of the social factors that make or mar social life, and of 
the great social problems as yet unsolved. The aim of this 
synthesis is to give children an accurate knowledge of the 
needs and possibilities of society as a basis for social en- 
deavor. 

It is the function of education, then, to restore philosophy 
to Kfe. The kind of philosophy here meant is itself dy- 
namic, evolving with experience, growing with maturity, 
and challenged and revised always by the new facts con- 
stantly contributed by a developing experience. It is, 
moreover, not an individualistic nor abstract affair, but a 
matter of the reflective adjustment of the individual to his 
social environment. A person's philosophy might be looked 
upon as the threads that weave the individual into the 
fabric of the social pattern. In school life this philosophic 
development can perhaps best be secured through group 
discussions. By such a method there will gradually be 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 163 

built up in the group a common body of socially useful 
points of view, constantly modified to be sure, but acting as 
a standard of reference by which day to day events and 
conditions may be judged. An enlightened public opinion 
can thus be developed within the group as a motive force 
to control. This is the foundation upon which later more 
mature judgments may most safely rest. 

READING 

Dewey, John. — ^Article on PhUosopJiy of Education, Cy- 

clopasdia of Education. Macmillan. 
Dewey, John, — Democracy and Education, Macmillan. 
Chap. XXIV. Philosophy of Education. 

Moral Education 

The educational aim is not fulfilled even with the 
development in the minds of its pupils of a conscious 
social philosphy. Social intelligence must eventuate in 
fruitful and enlightened social action. A social philosophy 
which does not affect conduct is sterile, if not posi- 
tively immoral. If social progress is to be effected, the 
working philosophy of life must go over into some kind o£ 
action that will bring about social improvement. Intel- 
lectual appreciation must therefore involve a sensitiveness 
to obligation, and the development of a disposition and an 
ability to act with other people for the common good. If 
we conceive of intelligence as the ability to look ahead, to 
forecast the result of this or that kind of action, we must 
attach responsibility for the action determined upon. In- 
creasing ability to direct changes brings with it increasing 
responsibility to make these changes in accordance with the 
best good of the group. 

This discussion indicates the responsibility of the school 
in regard to moral training. Moral training has always 
been regarded as part of the school's business, but it has 
been looked upon from an entirely formal point of view. 
It has been supposed to be developed sometimes through a 
series of lessons in ethics ; sometimes courses in story-tellin§r 



164 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

and ' ' memory gems ' ' have been devised for this purpose ; his- 
tory is sometimes looked to to supply moral training. * ' Our 
conceptions of moral education have been too narrow, too 
formal, and too pathological. We have associated the term 
ethical with certain special acts which are labeled virtues 
and are set off from the mass of other acts, and are still 
more divorced from the habitual images and motives of the 
children performing them. Moral instruction is thus asso- 
ciated with teaching about these particular virtues, or with 
instilling certain sentiments in regard to them." (John 
Dewey, Moral Principles in Education, pp. 42-43.) 

Much of our educational malpractice in regard to moral 
training is due, as Professor Dewey points out, to our fail- 
ure to distinguish between moral ideas and ideas about 
morality. " 'Moral ideas' are ideas of any sort whatsoever, 
which take effect in conduct and improve it, make it better 
than it otherwise would be. Similarly, one may say, im- 
moral ideas are ideas of whatever sort (whether arith- 
metical or geographical or physiological) which show theni- 
selves in making behavior worse than it would otherwise 
be ; and non-moral ideas, one may say, are such ideas and 
pieces of information as leave conduct uninfluenced for 
either the better or the worse. Now 'ideas about morality' 
may be morally indifferent or immoral or moral. There is 
nothing in the nature of ideas at out morality, of informa- 
tion about honesty or purity or kindness which automat- 
ically transmutes such ideas into good character or good 
conduct. . . . 

"The business of the educator — ^whether parent or 
teacher — is to see to it that the greatest possible number of 
ideas acquired by children and youth are acquired in such a 
vital way that they become moving ideas, motive-forces in 
the guidance of conduct. This demand and this opportunity 
make the moral purpose universal and dominant in all in- 
struction — ^whatsoever the topic. "Were it not for this pos- 
sibility, the familiar statement that the ultimate purpose 
of all education is character-forming would be hypocritical 
pretense; for as everyone knows, the direct and immediate 
attention of teachers and pupils must be, for the greater 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 165 

part of the time, upon intellectual matters." (John Dewey, 
Moral Principles in Education, pp. 1-2.*) 

The moral code of the race has been gradually built up 
out of its experience, as an effective method of forwarding 
social advancement. Society has learned to approve those 
actions which tend to the advantage of the community. The 
moral creed of a particular group is nothing more than the 
conviction implanted in the minds of its members of the 
propriety of the manner of life imposed upon them. The 
standards thus evolved represent public opinion as to what 
is right and just. The moral is the social; the immoral is 
the anti-social. Any moral idea found to be socially valu- 
able is retained, those found to be no longer relevant to the 
social situation are gradually eliminated; those which are 
universally applicable remain as a permanent part of the 
moral code. 

The foregoing discussions reveal the moral value of 
activity in education. Since our moral standards are not 
something remote from experience but engendered by ex- 
perience itself, moral training cannot be inculcated by 
giving children a set of maxims ; it must be gained through 
the give and take of social life itself. To provide a child 
with a set of maxims is to bind him an unthinking slave to 
the past ; to give him the power to realize the moral implica- 
tions of his own conduct and to evolve a code of ethics for 
evaluating social experience, from the experience in which 
he is himself engaging, is to make of him an active agent of 
civilization. It is for this reason that activities in school 
are a fundamental necessity in guiding conduct. They give 
opportunity for situations that bring about moral training 
through experience itself. A school regime that encourages 
the passive absorption of Jcnowledge for its own sake, that 
isolates pupils into individual units and emphasizes compe- 
tition, that makes communication among pupils a sin, is 
training up its pupils in a code of ethics which is not in 
accordance with what is advocated in life outside of school, 
and it fails to take advantage of the two great opportunities 

*By permission Houghton Mifflin Co. Copyright 1909 by John 
Dewey. 



166 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

for moral training of life in a social group — the training in 
cooperation and social sympathy. The participation of 
even small children, however, in projects of common inter- 
est to them calls for cooperation with all the moral training 
that it involves. The experience of a child in the company 
of his fellows is the best moral training he can have. Social 
disapproval has a quick and direct way of reforming con- 
duct that is worth a dozen homilies or moral lessons. We 
must interpret moral character more scientifically, more 
psychologically and adjust our pedagogical action accord- 
ingly. Moral character , must be regarded as an organic 
growth, not a series of specific achievements. It is devel- 
oped through the formation of habits, through experiences. 
It is a disposition to order one's conduct with reference to 
the welfare of others. It is only through constantly meeting 
situations that give opportunity for the exercise of moral 
ideas that these habits and this attitude can be developed. 
Discipline from this point of view means not external com- 
pulsion, but inner control. Moral preference is exercised 
only in making a choice. It is only when there is freedom 
to act, to act wrongly or rightly, that any moral issue is 
involved. Otherwise the intelligence has no opportunity to 
discern right from wrong; the disposition to do right has 
no chance to function positively. We cannot develop in 
children a sense of responsibility to act rightly when we 
deny them freedom of choice as to their actions. Ethical 
conduct is socially regulated activity, and it is evolved only 
by social experience in an environment freed from external 
control. 

The question of civics is closely related to this matter. 
Civics teaching as it is to-day conducted is far less effective 
in its reflex upon social action than it might be. Isolated as 
it is, just a ''subject" crowded into a curriculum With many 
others, it often fails to impress the child with a sense of 
reality. 

"To isolate the formal relationship of citizenship from 
the whole system of relations with which it is actually inter- 
woven; to suppose that there is some one particular study 
or mode of treatment which can make the child a good 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 167 

citizen; to suppose, in other words, that a good citizen is 
anything more than a thoroughly efficient and serviceable 
member of society, one with all his powers of mind and 
body under control, is a hampering superstition which it is 
hoped may soon disappear from educational discussion." 
(John Dewey, Moral Principles in Education, p. 9.) 

When the school is organized as a social community in 
which is being built up a body of facts as a basis for social 
action, when desirable attitudes and dispositions are being 
developed with regard to social matters, when this social 
philosophy has continual opportunity to function in situa- 
tions engendered by the school experience, all the resources 
of the school are being utilized for realizing the social mis- 
sion of education. The school cannot be a preparation for 
social life unless it reproduces within itself the conditions 
of social life. Education progressing in a school organized 
as a social laboratory is not merely a preparation for citi- 
zenship, it is an apprenticeship in citizenship. A concep- 
tion of morality built up as the outgrowth of such experi- 
ence will not be merely an abstraction residing in books or 
consisting of a collection of precepts; it will be a living 
thing pulsing through the very heart of social action. 

EEADING 

Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, Maemillan. 

Chap. XXVI. Theories of Morals. 
Dewey, John. — Moral Principles in Education, Houghton. 
KiLPATRiCK, W. H. — The Project Method, Teachers College 
Eecord, September, 1918. 

The Function of the Various Subjects of Study in 
Expanding Experience 

The foregoing discussions of the development of a course 
of study based upon and controlled at every point by 
psychological and social considerations, have involved all 
the subjects of study, and an effort has been made to show 
how they may enter functionally into the educational situa- 
tion. It is necessary, however, for the teacher to have a 



168 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

very clear conception of the educational significance oi each 
subject, and of their relation to one another, in order that 
these subjects may become in her hands a free and flexible 
instrument to be used as needed. It may be well, therefore, 
to include here a brief summary of the specific contributions 
made by the various subjects in expanding experience. 
Placing ourselves at the standpoint of the developing child, 
we may roughly classify subject-matter under three head- 
ings: (1) Active pursuits, (2) Subjects which give social 
background for these pursuits, (3) The tool subjects. 

(1) Active Pursuits. — If education is to proceed in 
accordance with the demands of child biology and psychol- 
ogy it follows that the central core of the curriculum must 
be those studies which may be looked upon not so much as 
studies as active pursuits, or the natural modes by which 
learning takes place. The child is essentially active, and 
the fundamental task of instruction is to lay hold of the 
natural motor tendencies of childhood, and direct them in 
such a way that they acquire more and more of educational 
value. Beginning with those natural impulses of the child 
to construct, to investigate and experiment, to express him- 
self in various art forms, to communicate with his fellows, 
noted under play activities, it is possible to have him repro- 
duce in play or work form, those pursuits by means of which 
the work of the world is carried on. 

EEADING 

Dewey, John. — The Place of Manual Training in tJie Ele- 
mentary Course of Study. Manual Training Magazine, 
July, 1901. 

"Work in the constructive arts brings with it a considera- 
tion of the function of science in the curriculum. If prog- 
ress in constructive activities is not to remain the mere 
acquisition of modes of skill, these activities must be con- 
stantly illuminated by an insight into the scientific prin- 
ciples upon which they are built. The constant opportunity 
afforded by constructive activities for exercise in the 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 169 

methods of scientific discovery and research, raises these 
occupations above the plane of training and makes them 
truly educative. From the point of view of method, science, 
leading as it does from mere manual dexterity to intel- 
lectual inquiries into the nature of activities engaged in, 
might be looked upon as the connecting link between active 
pursuits and the theoretical subjects noted in the second 
group. From the point of view of content, science, reveal- 
ing as it does the scientific principles upon which all the 
inventions and achievements of the modern social world 
depend, gives important clues to the understanding of the 
complex social life in which the child finds himself. 

(2) Subjects Giving Social Background for Active Pur- 
suits. — Since our educational aim is to develop the child's 
understanding of the intricacies of the social life of which 
he must gradually become a part, subjects of instruction 
will take the nature of developing a sense of the social sig- 
nificance of the occupations upon which the child is actively 
engaged. Its mode of development will necessarily depend- 
upon the development of activities within the school. 

The connection between the child's own activities and 
these subjects may possibly be made by means of excursions 
into the neighborhood to see various activities as they are 
carried on to-day. From these trips the child should gain 
the concept of man's achievements as responses to his 
environment in his efforts to satisfy his neeas. From this 
first hand study of the physical features of the home 
neighborhood in connection with the activities carried on 
there, he should gradually come to have an understand- 
ing of the part which the various forms of the configura- 
tion of the earth play in relation to activity. He should 
see lakes and rivers, mountains and plains as resources 
or obstacles to human progress. In this way there will 
be gradually built up a body of facts and principles about 
the physical environment in which we live and in con- 
nection with which many phases of social life have their 
explanation. "The overcoming of natural obstacles by 
man, the planting of the wilderness, the subjugation of 
naturalreonditions to his daily needs, the advantage taken 



170 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

by man of every possible means to effect his social develop- 
ment — these are the themes that must be dwelt upon. 
Nor is it necessary to compass every part of the known 
earth in order to accomplish the purpose of the study. 
The study of 'types' in each great social and geographical 
unit, thoroughly pursued and rightly appreciated is worth 
infinitely more than the effort to gain widespread ac- 
quaintance with facts that must necessarily fade in large 
part from the mind. . . . 

"The underlying principles of the geographic-social en- 
vironment, wherever viewed, present three phases of con- 
ditions of activity — production, transportation, and con- 
sumption. Under the first of these — production — ^will fall 
the consideration of the agricultural and mineral resources 
of a region as dependent upon topography, climate, and 
geological formation of land. The second — transporta- 
tion — must have as its subordinate topics the topograph- 
ical features, such as navigable rivers and lake chains, 
river valleys, the cutting of canals, and the building of 
railroads along the line of least resistance, by taking 
advantage of the *lay of the land,' as in river gorges 
and the passes through mountains, or, in the case of 
canals, low water-sheds between adjacent basins either of 
lakes or rivers. With the development of steam as a means 
of transportation, feats in engineering skill have accom- 
plished marvellous results — tunnelling a mountain range 
is equivalent to removing the entire barrier, and 'lands 
intersected by a narrow firth' are tied shore to shore by 
spanned arches or cantilever bridges. The third condi- 
tion — consumption — ^involves a consideration of the cities 
as great centers of population dependent upon two factors 
of social activity — manufacture and disbursement. . . . 

"What results are we to expect from this outlook of 
geography as a social factor in education? . . . The 
child's mind develops through healthy interest in the 
primary facts into an attitude of thought that looks for 
the causes and effects of things. He grows to see that 
the central motive of the study is the progress of humanity 
viewed against a background of geographical conditions. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 171 

He is led to understand that it is the cooperative labor 
of men that accomplishes results. The East must co- 
operate with the "West, the North with the South — each 
with the other — in order to build up a strong and vital 
social community. From his own country he will look 
abroad with the same thought in mind to other countries 
and other peoples. He will tend more and more to lose 
that local prejudice which is engendered by narrow con- 
ditions of life and fostered by narrow methods of teach- 
ing. He will become more of an American than a 
Pennsylvanian, and with a wider experience in the history, 
literature and language of the race from which he has 
sprung, more Anglo-Saxon, though not a jot less Ameri- 
can. In other words, he becomes more socially intelligent, 
and social intelligence is the lever that lifts mountains. 
With the social intelligence must come the social disposi- 
tion — the deeper appreciation of himself as a member of 
society. It may not dawn upon him at once; he may 
never realize in a concrete way what the study has done 
for him; but if there be any good in him, he will surely 
become the stronger man, the better neighbor, the more 
useful member of the social life in which he lives and 
moves. His sympathies will widen toward all sorts and 
conditions of men. He will realize better the significance 
of that struggle in which he and all his fellows are in- 
volved." (S. Trotter, The Social Function of GeograpJiy, 
National Herbart Society, Fourth Year Book, pp. 66-79.*) 
Just as the meaning of social life is clarified for the 
child when viewed against the background of the natural 
conditions in which it takes place, so is it further explained 
by studying it in the process of formation. The present 
is the product of the past; there is no other explanation 
of it except the past which produced it. We are what 
we are for no other reason than as a result of a process 
of growth; therefore we can understand what we are only 
by understanding how we came to be what we are. The 
study of history supplies us with the explanations of how 

*By permission The Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 
Illinois. Copyright 1898 by Chas. A. McMurry. 



172 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

things in our social life came to be as they are. According 
to this view, history instead of being a mere enumeration 
of what has happened in the past, comes to be the key 
to the understanding of the present. Knowledge of the 
past simply as past is of little value except as a literary 
accomplishment. ' ' If history be regarded as just the record 
of the past, it is hard to see any ground for claiming that 
it should play any large role in the curriculum of elemen- 
tary education. The past is the past, and the dead may be 
safely left to bury its dead. There are too many urgent de- 
mands in the present, too many calls over the threshold of 
the future, to permit the child to become deeply immersed in 
what is forever gone by. Not so when history is considered 
as an account of the forces and forms of social life. . . . 
Whatever history may be for the scientific historian, for 
the educator it must be an indirect sociology — a study of 
society which lays bare its process of becoming and its 
modes of organization. Existing society is both too com- 
plex and too close to the child to be studied. He finds 
no clues into its labyrinth of detail and can mount no 
eminence whence to get a perspective of arrangement." 
(John Dewey, The School and Society, p. 155.) 

This point of view necessarily affects very decidedly the 
method of studying history. If history is regarded as 
chronology, we naturally begin at the beginning and trace 
events in their time sequence; if, however, history is the 
key to some present situation, the starting point must be 
an examination of the present situation and the focussing 
of such historical facts upon it as will serve to explain it. 
"... a study of the social factors and forces as they exist in 
the world about us must precede any attempt at the ex- 
planation of historical development. . . . It is in this study 
of first-hand materials, in the observation of social activities 
about us, that we must get our clue to the relation of cause 
and effect in social and political affairs ; and until we have 
this clue, historical facts are merely so many isolated and 
unconnected events." (T. N. Carver, Sociology and Social 
Progress, p. 5.) 

Not only is the method of organizing historical data in- 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 173 

fluenced by this point of view; the content selected is also 
profoundly influenced by it. Formerly history was almost 
entirely political in character. "Our so-called standard 
works on history deal At length with kings and popes, with 
courtiers and statesmen, with wars waged for territory or 
thrones, with laws passed by princes and parliaments. 
. , . Until recently the main thread selected was political. 
Almost everything was classified under kings' reigns; and 
the policy of their governments and the wars in which 
they became involved were the favorite subjects of discus- 
sion. . . . Our most recent manuals venture to leave out 
some of the traditional facts least appropriate for an 
elementary review of the past and endeavor to bring their 
narrative into relation, here and there, with modern needs 
and demands." (J. H. Robinson, The New History, pp. 
135-137.) 

"The real question is, has not our bias for political his- 
tory led us to include many trifling details of dynasties 
and military history which merely confound the reader and 
take up precious space that should be devoted to certain 
great issues hitherto neglected? The winning or losing 
of a bit of territory by a Louis or a Frederick, the laborious 
piecing together of a puny duchy destined to speedy dis- 
integration upon the downfall of a Caesar Borgia, struggles 
between rival dynasties, the ambitions of young kings' 
uncles, the turning of an enemy's flank a thousand years 
ago, — have not such things been given an unmerited 
prominence? Man is more than a warrior, a subject, or 
a princely ruler; the State is by no means his whole 
interest. . . . He has, through the ages, made voyages, ex- 
tended commerce, founded cities, established great universi- 
ties, written books, built glorious cathedrals, painted 
pictures, and sought out many inventions. The propriety 
of including these human interests in our historical manuals 
is being more and more widely recognized, but political 
history still retains its supreme position and past political 
events are still looked upon by the public as history par 
excellence." (J. H. Robinson, TJie New History, pp. 8-9.*) 

*By permission The Macmillan Co. Copyright 1912. 



174 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

If the aim of instruction is to make clear the social life 
in which children are to play a part and if history is to 
be one of our chief means of explaining that life, the 
problem resolves itself into one of selecting from all the 
mass of historical material available, those phases which 
will be of greatest service to children in working out the 
problems of their social lives. Political history has its 
basis in social and economic conditions of which it is merely 
the outward manifestation. Emphasis should therefore 
shift from the study of political history to the study of 
its economic and social basis, the historic development of 
the means by which men have subjugated nature and 
learned to cooperate with one another for the advancement 
of the common good. The larger conception of history 
now regards it as the record of all forms of human effort 
and achievement. It is a record of man's thought in the 
face of the infinite complexities of life and nature ; it shows 
the insight of man at various stages in his social develop- 
ment, his modes of thought, his range of knowledge and 
consequently his success or failure in solving his problems. 
History and geography are thus seen to be mutually 
complementary subjects. "While geography emphasizes 
the physical side and history the social, these are only 
emphases in a common topic, namely, the associated life 
of men. For this associated life, with its experiments, its 
ways and means, its achievements and failures, does not 
go on in the sky nor yet in a vacuum. It takes place on 
the earth. This setting of nature does not bear to social 
activities the relation that the scenery of a theatrical per- 
formance bears to a dramatic representation ; it enters into 
the very make-up of the social happenings that form his- 
tory. Nature is the medium of social occurrences. It 
furnishes original stimuli; it supplies obstacles and re- 
sources. Civilization is the progressive mastery of its varied 
energies." (John Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 
247.) Since the understanding of history depends upon 
an appreciation of the natural environment as affording 
resources and presenting obstacles to human advancement, 
the child who has observed these natural aids and checks 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 175 

upon human activity is prepared to understand their sig- 
nificance when noted in connection with events remote in 
time and space. 

READING 

Alford, C. W. — TTie Science of History, Popular Science 

Monthly, May, 1914. 
Bagley, W. C. — The FunctioTis of Geography in the Ele- 
mentary School, Journal of Geography, May, 1904. 
Brunhes, — Human Geography, Rand. 
Dewey, John. — The School and Society, University of 
Chicago Press. 

Chap. VIII. The Aim of History in Elementar3 
Education. 
Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, Macmillan. 

Chap. XVI. The Significance of Geography and 
History. 
Dodge and Kirchwtey. — The Teaching of Geography, Rand 

McNally. 
Robinson, J. H. — The New History, Macmillan. 
Chap, I. The New History. 
Chap. III. The New Allies of History. 
Chap. V. History for the Common Man. 
Runyan, L. L. — Elementary History Teaching in the 
Laboratory School, Elementary School Teacher, Sep- 
tember, 1903. 
Sutherland, W. J. — The Teaching of Geography, Scott 

Foresman. 
Traner, F. W. — Socializing the Study of History, School 

Review, December, 1917. 
Trotter, S. — The Social Function of Geography, National 
Herbart Society, Fourth Year Book. 

(3) The Tool Subjects. — These subjects represent the 
symbols of the intellectual life. Reading and writing are 
the tools of communication; they make possible shared 
experiences on a much greater scale than mere oral 
language could do. Reading is a tool for the acquisition 



176 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

of the experiences of others, writing is a tool for the 
expression of experiences. The mathematical processes 
provide us with measuring rods of various sorts. They 
are of fundamental importance to experience by making 
it possible to reduce things to a common denominator 
of number and thus evaluate them. Measurement and 
comparison are therefore of fundamental value in under- 
standing relationships. It is through number concepts 
that we are able to understand the economic structure of 
society. 

In the traditional education where knowledge is an 
end in itself, instruction in the means by which knowledge 
is acquired, naturally assumes a place of first importance 
in any scheme of curriculum-making. If, however, the 
aim of instruction is to develop in the immature members 
of society, through experience, an understanding of the 
social life in which they are to participate, emphasis in 
the earlier stages naturally falls upon those studies which 
directly aid in this undertaking. The symbols, affording 
as they do only indirect and remote modes of experiencing, 
assume a less important position, becoming, not an end 
in themselves, but merely a means of expanding experience. 
Instruction in the symbols will take place only when 
it becomes necessary to expand the child's understanding 
beyond what is possible from direct personal experience. 
Although this point of view may seem to relegate the 
three E's to a place of secondary importance, in reality 
they gain greatly in significance, since reading, writing, 
and number work instead of being so many isolated 
studies have a highly functional value, organically related 
to experience. 

READING 

Dewey, John. — The School and Society, University of 
Chicago Press. 

Chap. IV. The Psychology of Elementary Educa- 
tion. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 177 

Tlie Function of tJie Teacher 

The teacher exists only for the sake of the learner. The 
foregoing discussions therefore define the task of the teacher. 
In the conventional school-room the teacher represents vested 
authority there to compel learning. Her method is considered 
as something distinct in itself. With a curriculum worked 
out in all its details, all that the teacher can do is to follow 
as conscientiously as may be this prescription laid upon 
her from above. It is small wonder that under such 
circumstances her method degenerates into mere routine 
skill, enlivened by such devices as she has found prac- 
tically useful in inducing learning. **The material, the 
stuff to be learned, is, from this point of view, inevitably 
something external, and therefore indifferent. There can 
be no native and intrinsic tendency of the mind toward 
it, nor can it have any essential quality which stimulates 
and calls out the mental powers. No wonder the up- 
holders of this distinction are inclined to question the 
value of interest in instruction, and to throw all the 
emphasis upon the dead lift of effort. The externality 
of the material makes it more or less repulsive to the mind. 
The pupil, if left to himself, would, upon this assumption, 
necessarily engage himself upon something else. It re- 
quires a sheer effort of will power to carry the mind over 
from its own intrinsic workings and interests to this out- 
side stuff. 

"On the other side, the mental operation being assumed 
to go on without any intrinsic connection with the ma-, 
terial, the question of method is degraded to' a very low 
plane. Of necessity it is concerned simply with the various 
devices which have been found empirically useful, or 
which the ingenuity of the individual teacher may invent. 
There is nothing fundamental or philosophical which may 
be used as a standard in deciding points in method. It 
is simply a question of discovering the temporary ex- 
pedients and tricks which will reduce the natural friction 
between the mind and the external material. No wonder, 
once more, that those who hold even unconsciously to 



178 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

this dualism . . . seek an ally in the doctrine of interest 
interpreted to mean the amusing, and hold that the actual 
work of instruction is how to make studies which have 
no intrinsic interest interesting — how, that is, to clothe 
them with factitious attraction, so that the mind may 
swallow the repulsive dose unaware." (John Dewey, TJie 
Psychological Aspect of the School Curriculum, Educa- 
tional Review, April, 1897, pp. 357-358.*) 

Reacting against this point of view many of the new 
schools revert to the opposite extreme. "There are those 
who see no alternative between forcing the child from with- 
out, or leaving him entirely alone. Seeing no alternative, 
some choose one mode, some another. Both fall into the 
fundamental error. . . . Both fail to see that development 
is a definite process, having its own law which can be ful- 
filled only when adequate or normal conditions are provided. 
... If, once more, the 'old education' tended to ignore the 
dynamic quality, the developing force inherent in the 
child's present experience, and therefore to assume that 
direction and control are just matters of arbitrarily putting 
the child in a given path, and compelling him to walk 
there, the 'new education' is in danger of taking the idea 
of development in altogether too formal and empty a way. 
The child is expected to ' develop ' this or that fact or truth 
out of his own mind. He is told to think things out, 
or work things out for himself, without being supplied 
any of the environing conditions which are requisite 
to start and guide thought. Nothing can be developed 
from nothing; nothing but the crude can be developed out 
of the crude — and this is what surely happens when we 
throw the child back on his achieved self as a finality, and 
invite him to spin new truths of nature or of conduct out 
of that. . . . Development does not mean just getting 
something out of the mind. It is a development of 
experience and into experience that is really wanted. And 
this is impossible save as just that educative medium is 
provided which will enable the powers and interests that 

*By permission George H. Doran Company. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 179 

have been selected as valuable to function. THey must 
operate, and how they operate will depend almost entirely 
upon the stimuli which surround them, and the material 
upon which they exercise themselves." (John Dewey, The 
Child and the Curriculum, p. 23.*) 

If the aim of the teacher is to convert children into 
social beings, it is obvious that she must know both child- 
nature and the nature of the world in which the children 
live. She must be a sensitive observer of evidences of 
growth — ^but she must also have steadily in mind the 
goal to be reached. The child's present manifestations 
are to be assessed by their potentialities; they must be 
interpreted in terms of their social significance. Teachers 
should, therefore, have a knowledge of the fundamental 
principles and problems of social life, they should know 
not only the industrial, social and political organization 
of the world, but the laws which govern the development 
of the world and in accordance with which progress takes 
place. It is only when resting upon a solid foundation 
of psychology and sociology that the subjects of study, 
and the educative materials and equipment become so 
many working resources, so many flexible instruments 
by means of which the teacher realizes her aims. The 
limitless amount of material available makes selection 
necessary. Guided always by the evidences of the child's 
growing capacity, she arranges an environment supplying 
conditions that make for the movement of experience into 
channels of greater social value. She helps children to 
take apart the vague unity of their experience, to see 
further and deeper into the relationships implicit in it, 
at the same time she aims developing such techniques and 
skills in the children that they will become more and 
more independent of her. 

Recently much attention has been given in educational 
circles to the consideration of projects as a method of 
organizing the curriculum. As a means of transferring 
teachers' attention from the passive to the active aspect 

*By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1902 by 
The University of Chicago. 



180 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOlI 

of education, and as indicating a practical tool by means' 
of which school work may be motivated, the project 
method is valuable. There is danger, however, in the 
use of any particular terminology as a description of 
method. It too easily provides a handle by which method 
may be lifted out of the vital relationships which give 
it significance, and considered artificially as something 
by and for itself. The great educational lesson to he 
learned from modern psycliology is that there is no special 
magic residing in method as method hy means of which 
the progress of an out-reaching experience may he 
effected. If, however, the term project is employed by 
teachers as a convenient way of designating a concrete 
unit of "whole-hearted purposeful activity in a social 
situation," it may fulfil a useful purpose in educational 
nomenclature. By its use the . indefinite continuity of 
children's activity may be broken into parts, the relation 
of the one part to the next can the more easily be per- 
ceived, and thus the process of experience the more 
readily noted and progress measured. It thus gives a 
ready means of guiding activity into more and more 
purposeful channels. Another justification of the project 
method lies in the fact that it gives opportunity for 
developing within the school situations that engage the 
pupils' mental powers in the way in which they are implied 
in life outside of school. Every project to be educationally 
worth-while should include thought-provoking problems 
that evolve in a sequence, each one growing out of the 
preceding, and dependent upon it for its successful solu- 
tion. In this way experience may be led out naturally 
to the consideration of highly abstract problems. Prom 
such experience mental training of the best sort results 
because the mind is required to keep the desired end 
constantly in view, and to regulate intermediary processes 
with reference to it, to judge the quality of thinking 
by the results it brings, and to discard irrelevant sug- 
gestions. Habits, skills, or special techniques are being 
developed in the way they need to operate. Altogether 
the project, properly managed, gives great opportunity 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 181 

for personal reflection and experimentation, which is the 
essence of the scientific method of thinking. 

It is only when projects are regarded in this way that 
they are educationally valuable. Considered as method 
the teacher has no method. Her method is simply her 
intelligence functioning at its highest capacity. ** Educa- 
tional method to be of worth should be scientific method 
applied to the art of teaching. The method of the teacher 
is simply an attitude of mind like that of the scientist. 
There are two elements involved, the learning mind, and 
the subject-matter or environment. To have an intimate 
acquaintance with each, to appreciate the expectant long- 
ing of mind, to interpret its responses to stimuli, to form 
valid conceptions of the activity and assimilating power 
of each child in the environment made by the subject, 
is to have a method in teaching which covers the entire 
range of that great art. It is to have the method of 
science applied to education. This means that the teacher 
should have a method applicable to every subject, in every 
division of the school beginning with the kindergarten 
and extending through the graduate school. A distinct 
method for every subject is not necessary any more than 
a special scientific method for each branch of science 
would be necessary. Whatever be the subject one is 
teaching the aim is identical with that of all other sub- 
jects taught: to determine how mind is working with the 
material in its environment, what nourishment it is select- 
ing and assimilating." (E. F. Young, Scientific MetJiod 
in Education, p. 147.*) 

This conception of method elevates it to the high place 
which it deserves. It demands of a teacher all of initia- 
tive, all of resource, all of the scientific yet sym- 
pathetic insight into the lives of growing children which 
she can command. Since the curriculum is not a fixed 
thing but a developing situation dependent upon the 
factors involved in it — the particular group of children, 
their particular environment, and the social subject-matter 

*By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1903 by 
the University of Chicago, 



182 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

that will adjust the two — upon the teacher devolves the 
entire responsibility for the success of the work. She 
may receive suggestion and help from other people and 
from books, but it is through the medium of her intelli- 
gence alone that any of this can become operative. It is 
only when teachers become imbued with a deep sense of 
the social significance of their calling that teaching can 
hope to fulfil its high office: "the most perfect union of 
science and art conceivable in human experience." 

READING 

Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, Macmillan. 
Chap. X. Interest and Discipline. 
Chap. XIII. The Nature of Method. 
Dewey, John. — Kow We Thmk, Heath. 

Chap. IV. School Conditions and the Training of 
Thought. 
GoODLANDER, M. R. — Education TJirougJi Experience, 

Bureau of Educational Experiments, Bui. No. 4. 
KiLPATRicK, W. H. — The Project Method, Teachers College 

Record, September, 1918. 
Snedden, D. — The Project as a Teaching Unit, School and 

Society, September 16, 1916. 
Stevenson, J. A. — The Project Method, Macmillan. 
Young, E. F. — Scientific Method in Education, University 
of Chicago Decennial Publications, Vol. Ill, University 
of Chicago Press, 1903. 

Measuring Progress. — The carrying out of this plan will 
necessarily have a great effect upon the daily program. 
It will no longer be possible to have set tasks and lessons 
following each other at half-hour intervals. We all re- 
member the story of the superintendent who proudly 
claimed that he could tell precisely what every child in 
the city was doing at a given moment. The requirements 
of child growth do not demand such assiduous attention 
to the clock. The daily program should be a flexible plan 
which allows time for essential activities, for discussion, 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS isis 

and for study and research. There should be time allowed 
for plays, games, the art activities and so on. 

Since the emphasis is upon activities and the free and 
full development of experience, it will be quite necessary 
for the teacher to keep a diary of daily events, for 
reference. This should be an effective aid for seeing the 
trend of activity and suggesting the next step in its 
development. Since the new point of view has not yet 
fully taken hold of school practice, we are as yet lacking 
in the technique necessary for quick and effective record- 
keeping. It will no doubt be possible at some later time 
to work out forms for record-keeping which will allow 
for all individual variations which this plan demands, 
but which will render less arduous the work of keeping 
track of the development of experience. Transfer sheets 
in which experiences are classified in relation to their 
bearing upon the various subjects of study would be 
valuable for recording progress in the curriculum. 

It will be necessary, also, to evolve some method of 
testing the results of this kind of education and some 
adequate method of measuring progress. The value of 
examinations, which of course are unsuited to a plan of 
education not based upon the pure knowledge aim, has 
been very seriously questioned even in conventional school 
work. It has been found by experimental data that since 
a teacher's judgment is necessarily a personal thing and 
even variable with one person according to physical state, 
examination marks are not an index of progress. Con- 
scientious teachers who have marked examination papers 
at two different times, have found a wide variation in 
the marks they have given for the same paper ; while the 
same paper, submitted to several teachers, has shown a 
correspondingly wide range of marks. There are numer- 
ous other defects of examinations, such as the loose evalua- 
tion of the various questions involved, the failure of the 
marks received to indicate where failures or difficulties 
lie, and so on. The tendency in educational work now 
is to substitute tests of a more scientific character for 
examinations. These tests as yet, however, are more 



184 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

a matter of promise than of actual achievement. Some 
of them are applicable to an experimentally developed 
course of study, but others are not, since they assume 
a type of experience that any particular group of children 
may not have had. It is possible, however, to develop 
within any school a series of tests and scales which are 
based in method upon the standardized tests, but which 
are adapted to the particular set of experiences that the 
children in the school have had. It is particularly valu- 
able for children to develop their own scales, as has been 
advocated in the case of the drill subjects. Graphs used 
in arithmetical and other situations are of course im- 
portant scales; if a record is kept for a length of time 
of the words needed in spelling by children having typical 
experiences, a spelling scale can be developed; specimen 
papers showing the best handwriting of each pupil can 
be filed, and they become a norm for measuring all future 
results. 

It is probably by such methods as these, with the help 
of the intelligence tests, that we can at present best solve 
the question of tests, awaiting the results of our own ex- 
perimentation as contributions to a more scientific evalua- 
tion of children's progress. Such results, if carefully 
recorded, might presumably reveal something quite dif- 
ferent from the results obtainable under present school 
conditions. It seems likely that we have not yet tapped 
the well-springs of childhood's possibilities at their deep- 
est level. The same thing holds true of the essential 
facts of knowledge that should be expected as the outcome 
of a well-rounded and well-ordered school experience. Al- 
though it is undoubtedly important to have a body of 
minimum essentials, these too, to be valuable, must be 
arrived at experimentally. 

BEADING 

Ayres, L. p. — Measuring Educational Processes through 
Educational Results, School Review, May, 1912. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 185 

Baglet, "W. C. — TJie Need of Standards for Measuring 
Progress and Results, Addresses and Proceedings of 
the National Education Association, 1912. 

Courtis, S. A. — Bulletin No. I Courtis Standard Tests, De- 
troit, Michigan. 

Equipment and Arrangements. — If the principles enun- 
ciated in the foregoing discussions are to be practically- 
carried out by schools it follows that there must be a 
radical change in their appearance and arrangements. 
The conditions in the conventional school-room are such 
as to prevent the normal functioning of child charac- 
teristics. The arrangement of the ordinary school-room 
is hostile to the existence of real situations arising from 
experience. Almost everything testifies to the great 
premium put upon listening, reading, and the reproduction 
of what is told or read. ''. . . if we put before the mind's 
eye the ordinary school-room, with its rows of ugly desks 
placed in geometrical order, crowded together so that 
there shall be as little moving room as possible, desks 
almost all of the same size, with just space enough to 
hold books, pencils and paper, and add a table, some 
chairs, the bare walls, and possibly a few pictures, we 
can reconstruct the only educational activity that can 
possibly go on in such a place. It is all made 'for listen- 
ing' — because simply studying lessons out of a book is 
only another kind of listening; it marks the dependency 
of one mind upon another. The attitude of listening 
means, comparatively speaking, passivity, absorption; 
that there are certain ready-made materials which are 
there, which have been prepared by the school superin- 
tendent, the board, the teacher, and of which the child 
is to take in as much as possible in the least possible 
time. There is very little space in the traditional school- 
room for the child to work. The workshop, the labora- 
tory, the materials, the tools with which the child may con- 
struct, create, and actively inquire, and even the requisite 



186 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

space, have been for the most part lacking. The things that 
have to do with these processes have not even a definitely 
recognized place in education." (John Dewey, The School 
and Society, pp, 32-33.*) The line of argument seems 
to have run: we must prepare children for life; since in 
life outside school they get activity and experience, we 
must withdraw them from all that, and give them an 
essentially different training, which they could not get 
were it not for the school. Hence the school has become 
isolated from life, and highly abstract and disciplinary 
in character. We have forgotten that in such a scheme 
of training for life, we are sacrificing life. The newer 
psychology assures us that the only preparation for life 
lies through life, and that we must rely on the develop- 
ment of the processes of growth for later manifestations 
of mental power. 

The present school viewed in the light of what it might 
become, if only we could rid our minds of cramping tradi- 
tion, is a dreary, drab place, scarcely reflecting the joyous 
spontaneity of childhood. In comparison the vision of 
the school of the future presents a delightful contrast. 
Since the school is an integral part of the life of the 
children, the legitimate school environment will be 
thought of not merely as the school building with its 
special equipment and its teachers. It will consist also 
of the home, the neighborhood, in short the general social 
setting in which the child finds himself. In this larger 
environment the school will aim to serve a particular 
function; it will be a middle department of the child's 
life so to speak; his social laboratory — ^the one place in 
the world especially designed to meet his needs, the place 
to which he may bring his problems, the particular facts 
he has discovered, where he may exchange information 
with his fellows, where all the confusing experiences of 
his daily life may be simplified, explained, the typical and 
significant phases pointed out, the whole enriched, ideal- 

*By permission University of Chicago Press, Copyright 1900 by 
The University of Chicago. Copyright 1900 and 1915 by John 
Dewey. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 187 

ized and brought into a more meaningful order, so that 
it may be carried back again into daily life making it 
fuller and richer in meaning because of the school process. 

All the arrangements within the school should be made 
in accordance with this conception. Since learning is 
essentially active the school must be preeminently a place 
adapted to activity. It will consist of laboratories of 
various kinds for experimentation and creative expression, 
such as play-rooms, work-shops, and studios, which will 
be provided with a generous and carefully thought out 
assortment of materials — with toys and play-things, with 
tools and apparatus, and specimens — in short with all ^ 
sorts of equipment chosen to act as stimuli to initiating 
and carrying through active experimentation leading, as 
maturity permits, into the more controlled forms of the 
arts and the sciences. 

Around these arrangements for activities should be 
clustered whatever provisions are necessary for orienting 
them by proper information and study. Chief among these 
provisions would be the school library, where should be 
gathered and arranged in form for ready-reference, read- 
ing-matter, pictures, maps, drawings and related materials, 
where inquiries into the historic, geographic, scientific and 
social setting of matters under investigation could be 
satisfied. It is not to be supposed nor desired that this 
library be of the ready-made variety; it should be an 
organic growth, developing in response to school needs, 
and contributed to by the pupils as they find valuable 
material in their researches elsewhere. Besides the 
library there might appropriately be a school museum 
where there might be in the process of collection represen- 
tative specimens of the arts and industries of the ages. 
"In the ideal school there would be something of this 
sort: first, a complete industrial museum, giving samples 
of materials in various stages of manufacture, and the 
implements, from the simplest to the most complex, used in 
dealing with them ; then a collection of photographs and pic- 
tures illustrating the landscapes and scenes from which the 
materials come, their native homes, and their places of manu- 



188 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

facture. Such a collection would be a vivid and continual 
lesson in the synthesis of art, science, and industry. There 
would be also, samples of the more perfect forms of 
textile work, as Italian, French, Japanese, and Oriental. 
There would be objects illustrating motives of design and 
decoration which have entered into production. Litera- 
ture would contribute its part in its idealized representa- 
tion of the world-industries, as the Penelope in the Odyssey 
— a classic in literature because the character is an adequate 
embodiment of a certain industrial phase of social life. So, 
from Homer down to the present time, there is a continuous 
procession of related facts which have been translated into 
terms of art. Music lends its share, from the Scotch song 
at the wheel to the spinning song of Marguerite, or of 
Wagner's Senta." (John Dewey, The School and Society* 
pp. 79-80.) Is it too much to hope that with these oppor- 
tunities for the highest forms of expression, and with these 
materials to stir the imagination, pupils might respond in 
new forms of real, creative, inventive thought? 

HEADING 

Dewey, John. — The School and Society, University of 
Chicago Press. 

Chap. III. Waste in Education. 
Dewey, John and Evelyn. — Schools of To-morrow, Dutton. 

Chap. VIII. The School as a Social Settlement. 

*By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1900 by 
The University of Chicago. Copyright 1900 and 1915 by John 
Dewey. 



THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 189 



POSTSCRIPT— A CALL TO TEACHERS 

The social point of view sends a challenge to every phase 
of our school procedure. Educational reconstruction is 
indeed a big undertaking. Is it possible of realization? 
Or must we stand helpless before the evident failure of 
our educational system to educate? As we have seen, 
it is characteristic of the forward reach of the human 
mind, to hold before itself worthy ends and then set about 
finding means appropriate to achieving them. Is it too 
much to expect that the social requirements of education, 
once they are clearly comprehended and their profound sig- 
nificance realized, can be met? 

The great battles **to make the world safe for de- 
mocracy" remain yet to be won — ^in the school-room. Let 
us then refuse longer to bind the new life to the life 
that is passing. Let us be no longer willing to shackle 
the experimental spirit of the youth of the world, or to 
place a ban upon creative and explorative thought. Let 
us unite to raise up a body of men and women thinkers, 
not partisans, animated by a great social consciousness, 
and standing ready to face their problems eager and 
unafraid. It is only in this way that we can make of 
education a great liberalizing agent for the release of 
democratic forces. It will take long, patient, painstaking* 
effort; it will require a body of whole-hearted experi-, 
menters, fired by the philosopher's vision, willing to sub- 
mit every action to rigid scrutiny, and to extract from 
every failure that bit of good which will lead to its better 
application in the future. Are we ready for the great 
experiment ? 



PART III 

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES FOR SUBJECT- 
MATTER 

The supplying of subject matter according to the needs 
of expanding experience requires a new organization of 
the sources where it may be found. The old text books 
organized according to adult logical classifications are no 
longer adequate to supply information so that it will enter 
functionally into experience. A card catalogue and an 
assortment of carefully selected books are an indis- 
pensable equipment for the teacher who wishes to create 
a rich, social background for the expanding intelligence 
of her pupils. For such teachers the following list of 
books has been compiled. They are classified not as so 
much geography, history, science, etc., but these subjects 
are all included under headings by consideration of which 
they function in experience. The bibliography is not 
intended to be exhaustive ; it may be looked upon rather 
as a nucleus about which every teacher will add such 
books as she finds directly suited to her needs, especially 
those dealing with local matters. Nor can unqualified 
approval be given to every book included. The Mst repre- 
sents a selection from the best books to be had at present. 
Most of the books included have been personally ex- 
amined ; those which have not have been taken from the A. 
L. A. lists or other reliable sources. It is difficult to make 
any sharp distinction between books for children and those 
for teachers, since children can often use quite advanced 
texts under guidance. Books which have been definitely 
written for children are, however, starred. 

191 



192 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

COMMUNITY STUDY 
Food 

Production and Distribution 

Adams, F. U. — Conquest of tJie Tropics. Doubleday, 
Page. The story of the creative enterprises eon- 
ducted by the United Fruit Company. Illustrated. 

*Bassett, S. W. — The Story of Sugar. Penn Pub. Co. 

Bengston and Griffith. — The Wheat Industry. Mac- 

millan. Connected treatment of the activities of 

wheat production through the farm, commercial 

movements, and manufacturers. 

Bishop and Keller, — Industry and Trade. Ginn. 

*Bradish, S. p. — Stories of Country Life. American 

Book Co. 
Brooks, E. C. — The Story of Corn. Rand McNally. 
The purpose is to combine the fundamental prin- 
ciples of geography and agriculture and to treat 
them historically in order that the youth of the 
country may appreciate the tremendous importance 
of agriculture in the history of the race. 

*Browne, E. a. — Peeps at' Industries — Sugar. Mac- 
millan. Account in simple language. Illustrated. 

*Browne, B. a. — Peeps at Industries — Tea. Macmillan. 

* Carpenter, F. G. — How the World is Fed. American 
Book Co. 

*Carpentee, F. 0. — Foods and Their Uses. Scribner. 
Cereals, fruits, vegetables, meats, fish, dairy prod- 
ucts, etc. 

*Casson, H. N. — The Romance of the Reaper. Double- 
day, Page. Account in simple language of the 
development of the reaping machine. 

*Chamberlain, J. F. — How We Are Fed. Macmillan. 
"The production and preparation for market of 
many of our principal foods. ' ' Story form. 

*Chase and Clow. — Stories of Industry, Vols. I and II, 
Educational Pub. Co. 
Crisset, F. — The Story of Foods. Rand McNally. 
"Deals with the human agencies concerned in the 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 193 

production of food. We are given a glimpse into 
the large business enterprises engaged in making 
it possible for our grocer to furnish us with a 
wonderful variety of foods gathered from all parts 
of the world. ' ' 

*Edgae, W. C. — The Story of a Grain of Wheat. Apple- 
ton. 

*Farmeb and Huntington. — Food Prohlems. Ginn. To 
illustrate the meaning of food waste and what may 
be accomplished by economy. 

*U. S. Food Administration. — Food Saving and Sharing. 
Doubleday, Page. 
Frederiksen, J. D. — The Story of Milk. Macmillan. 
Freeman and Chandler. — The World's Commercial 
Products. Ginn. Authoritative book on the eco- 
nomic and commercial values of the vegetable prod- 
ucts of the world. Fully illustrated. 

*BiiHOP AND Keller. — Commercial amd Industrial Geog- 
raphy. Ginn. Leading aspects of commerce and 
industry under three natural divisions correspond- 
ing to three great needs — food, clothing, and shelter. 

*KiRBY, M. AND E. — Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard. 
Educational Pub. Co. Simple stories of tea, sugar, 
rice, etc. 

*Lane, M. a. L. — Industries of To-day. Ginn. Short 
stories by various writers on codiishing, ranch life, 
etc. 

*Ltde, L. "W. — Man and His Markets. Macmillan. The 
chief articles of necessity and the organization of 
industry to produce and distribute each. 

*MoRRis, C. — Home Life in All Lands, Vol. I. Lippincott. 

*Rogheleau, W. F. — Gr'eat American Industries, Vol. II. 
Flanagan. 

*Rocheleau, W. F. — Geography of Commerce and In- 
dustry. Educational Pub. Co. Conditions relating 
to industries — dependence of industries upon geo- 
graphical conditions, relation of man to environ- 
ment, effect of commerce upon civilization, etc. 
Sherman, H. C. — Food Products. Macmillan. 
Smith, J. R. — The World's Food Resources. Holt. 



194 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Smith, J. R. — Commerce and Industry. Holt. How 
man's industries are determined by his environ- 
ment. The physiographic basis of the industry- 
given in connection with the industrial fact that 
is being explained. 
*Stoem, G. E. — The Water Supply of a Town or City. 
Lessons in Community and National Life, Series C. 
U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. 

Surface, G. T. — The Story of Sugar. Appleton. Oc^ 
currence in nature, early history, manufacture, 
from refiner to consumer ; our future sugar supply. 
*Tappan, E. M. — The Farmer and His Friends. Hough- 
ton. 

ToOTHAKER, C. R. — Commercial Raw Materials. Ginn. 
Origin, preparation, uses of great variety of ma- 
terials; good maps. 
*TwOMBLY AND Dana. — The Romance of Labor. Macmil- 
lan. Stories by various authors describing various 
occupations. 

White, W. A. — The Business of a Wheat Farm. Scrib- 
ner's Magazine, November, 1897. 

History 

*FoRMAN, S. E. — Stories of Useful Inventions. Century. 
*MoRRis, C. — Home Life in All Lands, Vol. II. Lip- 

pincott. 
*Reynolds, M. J. — How Man Conquered Nature. Mae- 

millan. 
*Skeat, W. W. — The Past at Our Doors Macmillan. 
(See also titles under Primitive Life.) 

Cost 

*Ball and West. — Household Arithmetic. Lippincott. 

*Calfee, J. E. — Rural Arithmetic. Ginn. 

*Dooley, W. H. — Vocational Mathematics for Girls. 
Heath. 

*HoYT AND Peet. — Everyday Arithmetic. Houghton. 
"Problems grouped by situations taken from ac- 
tual experience so that the child meets numbers 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 195 

vitally related to his home and school interests." 

(Preface.) 
*Lewis, C. J. — Farm Business Arithmetic. Heath. 

''Large majority of the problems have been taken 

from actual conditions. ' ' ( Preface. ) 
Richards, E. H. — The Cost of Food, Wiley. 
Rose, M. S. — Feeding the Family. Macmillan. 

Science 

Beownlee, R. B., and others. — Chemistry of Common 
Things. AUyn and Bacon. 

Clark, B. M. — General Science. American Book Co. 
Facts about heat, food, light, etc., in every-day 
applications. Fermentation, bleaching, dyeing, etc. 

Conn, H. W. — Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home. 
Ginn. 

Goodrich, C. L. — The First Book of Farming. Double- 
day. 

Richards and Elliott. — Chemistry of Cooking and 
Cleaning. "Whitcomb and Barrows. 

Van Buskirk and Smith. — The Science of Every-day 
Life. Houghton. 

Hygiene 

CoNLEY, E. — Nutrition and Diet. American Book Co. 
*Denton, M. C. — An Intelligently Selected Diet, Lessons 
in Community and National Life, Series B. U. S. 
Bureau of Education, 1918. 
Jordan, "W. H.^ — Principles of Human Nutrition. Mac- 
millan. 
*Kinne and Cooley. — Food and Health. MacmiUan. 
McCoLLUM, E. V. — The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition. 

Macmillan. 
Richards, E. H. — Food Materials and Their Adultera- 
tion. Whitcomb and Barrows. 
Rose, M. S. — Feeding the Family. Macmillan. 
*Tuttle, T. D. — Principles of PuhUc Health. World 
Book Co. 



196 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Clothiag 

'Production and Distribution 

Adams, S. A. — The Department Store, Scribner's Mag- 
azine, January, 1897. 
Atkin, C. G. — Millinery. Ronald Press. Straws and 
braids, making, trimming, principles of color, form, 
and shape. 

*Bassett, S. W.—Tke Story of Silk. Penn Pub. Co. 

*Bassett, S. W. — The Story of Wool. Penn Pub. Co. In 

story form, illustrated. 
BiGwooD, G. — Cotton. Holt. History, production, mar- 
keting, and manufacture. 

*BiSHOP AND Keller. — Industry and Trade. Ginn. 

*Brooks, E. G.—TJie Story of Cotton. Rand McNally. 
Treats the industry in its economic relation to 
people, traces development from primitive times to 
the present ; to be used with older children. 

*Browne, E. a. — Peeps at Industries — Rubier. Mac- 

millan. Account in simple language, illustrated. 

Burkett and Poe. — Cotton. Doubleday, Page. Cotton 

raising in the South ; the cotton plant, how it grows, 

marketing, manufacture, by-products. 

*Carpenter, F. G. — How fhe World Is Clothed. Ameri- 
can Book Co. 

*Chamberlain, J. F. — How We Are Clothed. Macmillan. 

*Chase and Clow. — Stories of Industry. Vol. 2. Educa- 
tional Pub. Co. 

*CooKE, A. 0. — A Visit to a Cotton Mill. Oxford Uni- 
versity Press. 

*CooKE, A. 0. — A Visit to a Woolen Mill. Oxford Uni- 
versity Press. 

*CooKE, A. 0. — A Day with the Leather Workers. Oxford 
University Press. 

*CuRTis, A. T. — The Stor'y of Cotton. Penn Pub. Co. In 

story form, illustrated. 
DooLEY, "W. H. — Textiles. Heath. 
Gibson, C. R. — Romance of Modern Manufacture. Lip- 
pincott. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 197 

*Hall, J. — Weavers and Ofher Workers. Rand McNally. 

Reading book for younger children. 
Hubert, P, G. — The Business of a Factory. Scribner's 

Magazine, Mareb, 1897. 
Kellee and Bishop. — Commercial and Industrial Geog- 
raphy. Ginn. 
KiNNE AND CooLEY. — Shelter and Clothing. Macmillan. 
*Lane, M. a. L. — Industries of To-day. Ginn. 
*Laut, a. C. — The Story of the Trapper. Appleton. 
Lehman, M. A. — Leather Goods. Ronald Press. Quali- 
ties of good leather, substitutes, preparation, manu- 
facture, etc. 
*Lyon, L. S. — The Worker in Our Society, Lessons in 
Community and National Life, Series A. U. S. 
Bureau of Education, 1918. 
McGowan and Waite. — Textiles and Clothing. Mac- 
millan. 
Moore, A. S. — Linen; from the Raw Material to the 

Finished Product. Pitman and Co. 
*MoRRis, C. — Home Life in all Lands, Vol. I. Lippincott. 
*MoWRY, W. A. AND A. M. — American Inventions and 

Inventors. Silver, Burdette. 
Nystrom, p. H. — Textiles. Appleton. The essential 
facts regarding the ordinary textiles of commerce, 
methods of manufacture and distribution, tests to 
determine quality, economic aspects. 
Omerod, F. — Wool. Holt. History, production, mar- 
keting and manufacture. 
*RocHELEAU, W. F. — Great American Industries, Vol. 

III. Flanagan. 
*RocHELEAU, "W. F. — Geography of Commerce and Indus- 
try. Educational Pub. Co. 
ScHERER, J. A. B. — Cotton as a World Power. Stokes. 
*ScHiLLiG, E. E. — The Four Wonders. Rand McNally. 
The Production of cotton, wool, linen, and silk. 
Illustrated. 
Steffens, L. — The Modern Business Building. Scrib- 
ner's Magazine, July, 1897. 
*Tappan, E. M. — Makers of Many Things. Houghton. 



198 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Thompson, E. B. — Cotton and Linem Goods. Ronald 
Press. Sources and cultivation of cotton and linen, 
spinning, weaving, color, design, dyeing. 
TooTHAKER, C. R. — Commercial Raw Materials. Ginn. 

*Van Hoesen, G. — Cotton Factory and Its Workers. 
Lessons in Community and National Life, Series B. 
U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. 

*Very, E. — Warp and Woof, the Story of the Textile 
Arts. Educational Pub. Co. 

•Wilkinson F. — The Story of the Cotton Plant. Apple- 
ton. 

History 
*F0EMAN, S. E. — Stories of Useful Inventions. Century. 
*HoLLAND, R. S. — Historic Inventions. Jacobs. 
*Lamprey, L. — In the Days of the Guild. Stokes. 

Stories of the golden age of English arts and crafts 

— ^wool merchants, wood carvers, etc. Illustrated. 
*Lyon, L. S. — The Rise of Machine Industry. Lessons 

in Community and National Life, Series A. U. S. 

Bureau of Education, 1918. 
*MoREis, C. — Home Life in All Lands, Vol. II. Lip- 

pincott. 
*MowRy, W. A. and A. M. — Am:e7^ican Inventions and 

Inventors. Silver, Burdette. 
•Reynolds, M. J. — How Man Conquered Nature. Mac- 

millan. 
*Skeat, W. W. — The Past at Our Doors. Macmillan. 
*Tryon, R. M. — Spinning and Dyeing Linen in Colonial 

Times. Lessons in Community and National Life, 

Series C. 
*Watson, K. H. — Textiles and Clothing. American 

School of Home Economics. Primitive methods of 

spinning and weaving. Illustrated. 

{See also titles under primitive life.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 199 

Cost 

*Ball and West. — EouseJiold Arithmetic. Lippincott. 

*DooLEY, W. H. — Vocational Mathematics for Girls^ 
Heath.. 

♦Gardener and Murtland. — Industrial Arithmetic. 
Heath.. 
Science 

*Brownlee, Fuller and others. — Chemistry of Com- 
mon Things. Allyn and Bacon. 

*Clark, B. M. — General Science, American Book Co. 

*Van Buskirk and Smith. — The Science of Every-day 
Life. Houghton. 

Hygiene 

*KiNNE AND CooLEY. — Clothing and Health. Macmillan. 
*TuTTLE, T. D. — Principles of Public Health. World 
Book Co. 

Shelter 

Production and Distribution 

*Barnard, C. — Tools and Machines. Silver, Burdette. 

*Balderston, L. R. — Housewifery. Lippincott. Manual 
of practical housekeeping; plumbing, heating, 
lighting, furnishings, etc. 

*Bassett, S. W. — Story of Lumber. Penn Pub. Co. In- 
formation about lumber camps and conservation. 
Illustrated. 

*Bassett, S. W. — The Story of Glass. Penn Pub. Co. 
History and development of glass making. Story 
form. 

*Bassett, S. W. — The Story of Porcelain. Penn Pub. Co. 
Beveer, I. — The House. Amer. School of Home Eco- 
nomics. Evolution of house, arrangement of rooms, 
furnishings, decorations, care, etc. 
Binns, C. F. — Story of the Potter. Wessels. 
BiNNS, C. F. — The Potter's Craft. Van Nostrand. 

*BiSHOP AND Keller. — Industry and Trade. Ginn. 

^Carpenter, F. G. — How the World Is Housed. Ameri- 
can Book Co, 



200 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Casson, H. N. — The Romance of Steel. Barnes. An 
account of the growth of the steel industry and the 
men concerned in it. 

^Chamberlain, J. F. — How We Are Sheltered. Mac- 
millan. 

*Chase and Clow. — Stories of Industry, Vols. I and II. 
Educational Pub. Co. 
Clark, T. M. — The Care of the House. Macmillan. 
How the house is built, heating, plumbing, gas, 
electricity, etc. 

*CooKE, A. 0. — A Day in an Iron Works. Oxford Uni- 
versity Press, 

*CooKE, A, O. — A Visit to a Coal Mine. Oxford Uni- 
versity Press. 

*DoRRANCE, J. G. — The Story of the Forest. American 

Book Co. 
Greene, H. — Coal and Coal Mines. Houghton. 

*Hill, H. C. — The Wonder Book of Knowledge. John 
C. Winston. Short accounts of a number of famil- 
iar things. 

*HoPKiNS, W. J. — The Doers. Houghton. Short stories 
in very simple language about the various workmen 
engaged in building a house. 
Husband, J. — A Year in a Coal Mine. Houghton. Real 

experiences of the author. 
Hutchinson, E. L. — House Furnishings. Ronald Press. 

Materials and manufacture. 
Keller and Bishop. — Commercial and Industrial Geog- 
raphy. Ginn. 

*KiNNE AND Cooley. — Shelter and Clothing. Macmillan. 

*Lane, M. a. L. — Industries of To-day. Ginn. 

*Martin, E. a. — The Story of a Piece of Coal. Ap- 
pleton. 

*McFee, I. N. — Little Tales of Common Things. Crowell. 
Short account in story form of various articles. 

*Meade, C. D. — The Story of Gold. Appleton. Develop- 
ment of modern gold mining industry. 

*Morris, C. — Home Life in all Lands, Vol. I. Lippincott 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 201 

*Parker, E. p. — Petroleum and Its Uses, Lessons in 
Community and National Life, Series C. U. S. 
Bureau of Education, 1918. 
PiNCHOT, G. — A Primer in Forestry. Farmer's Bulletin 

173. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
*IIedway, J. W. — Commercial Geography. Scribner. 
*RocHELEAU, "W. F. — Great American Industries, Vols, 

II and III. Flanagan. 
*RocHELEAu, "W. F. — Geography of Commerce and In- 
dustry. Educational Pub. Co. 
*Samuel, E. I. — Story of Iron and Steel. Penn Pub Co. 

Method of mining and making into machines. 
*Samuel, E. I. — Story of Gold and Silver. Penn Pub. 
Co. Methods of mining, description of the process 
of minting, and something about currency. 
*Shinn, C. H. — The Story of the Mine. Appleton. An 
attempt to describe in a clear and simple way some 
of the every day features as well as the unusual 
_ things connected with mines, keeping constantly in 
view the human elements. 
Smith, J. R. — The Story of Iron and Steel. Apple- 
ton. 
*Smith, J, R. — Iron and Steel. Lessons in Community 
and National Life, Series C. U. S. Bureau of 
Education, 1918. 
Talbot, F. A. A. — Oil Conquest of the World. Heine- 

mann. 
Talbot and Breckinridge. — The Modern Household. 
Whitcomb and Barrows. The household as a 
social unit, as the center of consumption, the activi- 
ties of the household, the household and the com- 
munity. 
*Tappan, E. M. — Diggers in the Earth. Houghton. 
*Tappan, E. M. — Makers of Many Things. Houghton. 
TooTHAKER, C. R. — Commercial Raw Materials. Ginn. 
Tower, W. S.—The Story of Oil. Appleton. 
White, M. — The Fuels of the Household. Whitcomb 
and Barrows. Composition, combustion, incandes- 
cence. 



202 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

*Will]:ams, a. — TJie Romance of Modern Mining. Lip- 
pincott. Description in simple language of the 
mining of different minerals in different parts of 
the world in ancient and modern times. 

History 

*FoRMAN, S. E. — Stories of Useful Inventions. Cen- 
tury. 

*HoLLAND, R. S. — Historic Inventions. Jacobs. 

*MoRRis, C. — Home Life in All Lands, Vol. II. Lippin- 
cott. 

*MowRY, W. A. AND A. M. — American Inventions and 
Inventors. Silver, Burdette. 

*QuENNELL, M. AND C. H. B. — A History of Every-day 
Things in England. Scribner. 

*Reynolds, M. J. — How Man Conquered Nature. Mac- 
millan. 

*Skeat, W. W. — The Pasi at Our Doors. Macmillan. 
ViOLLET-LE-Duc, E. E. — The Habitations of Man in 
All Ages. Osgood, Very valuable, tracing "the 
origin and development of domestic architecture 
among the several races of mankind, the modes in 
which human dwellings have been constructed, and 
the appearance and manners of their inhabitants 
from prehistoric times down to modern times." 
"Waterhouse, p. L. — The Story of the Art of Building. 
Appleton. Traces the course of architecture from 
Egyptian down to modem times. 

(See also titles under Primitive Life.) 

Cost 
*Ball and West. — Household Arithmetic. Lippincott. 
*Brookman, a. T. — Family Expense Account. Heath. 
*Calfee, J. E. — Rural Arithmetic. Ginn. 
*Dooley, W. H. — Vocational Mathematics for Girls. 

Heath. 
*HoYT AND Peet. — Evcry-day Arithmetic. Houghton. 
Sheaffer, W. a. — Household Accounting and Eco- 
nomics. Macmillan. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 203 

Terrill, B, M. — Household Management. American 
School of Home Economics. Household accounts, 
marketing, economy in spending, etc. 

Science 

*Brownlee, R. B., and others. — Chemistry of Common 

Things. AUyn and Bacon. 
*Clarke, B. M. — General Science. American Book Co. 
DoDD, M. E. — Chemistry of the Household. American 
School of Home Economics. A day's chemistry 
— an outline of the simple and most evident chem- 
ical changes suggested by a day's work at home. 
*Faradat, M. — Chemical History of a Candle. Button. 
Description of the science involved in a candle, 
written in a simple style suitable for young people. 
*HoDGDON, D. R. — Elementary General Science. Hinds, 

Hayden and Eldredge. 
Lynde, C. J. — Physics of the Household. Macmillan. 
The physics of mechanical appliances, water supply, 
heat, electricity, light in the home. 
*Trapton", G. H. — Science of Home and Community. 

Macmillan. 
*Van Buskirk and Smith. — The Science of Every-day 

Life. Houghton. 
Williams, H. S. and E. H. — Science in the Industrial 
World. Goodhue. Description of the telephone, 
telegraph, manufacture of paper, paints, dyes, etc. 

Hygiene 

Broadhurst, J. — Home and Community Hygiene. Lip- 
pincott. 

Capes and Carpenter. — Municipal House Cleaning. 
Button. Full discussion of the methods and ex- 
periences of American cities in collecting and dis- 
posing of ashes, garbage, sewage, etc. 

Elliott, S. M. — Household Hygiene. American School 
of Home Economics. The health of the home, the 
best situation for the house, importance of the 
cellar, drainage, plumbing, ventilating, etc. 



204 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Geehabd, "W. p. — Disposal of Household Wastes. Van 

Nostrand. 
*0'Shea and Kellogg. — Heath and Cleanliness. Mac- 

millan. 
Prudden, T. M. — Dust and Its Dangers. Putnam. 
Prudden, T. M. — The Story of Bacteria. Putnam. 



Transportation 

(xcneral 

*Adams, C. C. — Elementary Commercial GeograpJiy. 
Appleton. Emphasis given to improved transporta- 
tion, the application of steam-power to machinery, 
and the progress in chemical science as the main 
factors in the development of commerce and indus- 
tries. 

*BiSHOP AND Keller. — Industry and Trade. Ginn. 

*Carpenter, F. G. — How the World Travels. American 
Book Co. 

•Chamberlain, J. F. — How We Travel. Macmillan. 
Day, C. — History of Commerce. Longmans. Account 
of the commerce of various nations from the time 
of the early Egyptians to the present. 

*Dunham, E. — Jogging around the World. Stokes. Pic- 
tures and short descriptions of vehicles and beasts 
of burden in many countries. 

*Gregory, Keller and Bishop. — Physical and Commer- 
cial Geography. Ginn. Discusses the relation of 
man to his environment, and the geographic in- 
fluences on trade. 

*Hall, C. — Wonders of Transport. Blackie, London. 

*HoLLAND, E. S. — Historic Inventions. Jacobs. 

*Lane, M. a. L. — Triumphs of Science. Ginn. 

*MoRRis, C. — Home Life in All Lands, Vol. I. Lippin- 
cott. 

*MowRY, W. A. AND A. M. — American Inventions and 
Inventors. Silver, Burdette. 

•Redway, J. W. — Commercial Geography. Scribner. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 205 

*RocHELEAU, W. F, — Great American Industries, Yol. 4. 

Flanagan. 
*Smith and Jewett. — An Introduction to Science. Mae- 

millan. 
*Smith, J. R. — Industrial and Commercial Geography. 

Holt. A standard text dealing with the trade 

routes and the source and nature of materials for 

manufacture. 
*Tappan, E. M. — Travellers and Travelling. Houghton. 
*Van Buskirk and Smith. — TJie Science of Every-day 

Life. Houghton. 
*Werthner, W< B. — How Man Makes Markets. Mac- 

millan. The story of commerce simply told. 

Boads 
*MooRE, C. H. — Good Boads. Lessons in Community and 
National Life, Series B. U. S. Bureau of Educa- 
tion, 1918. 
Page, L. W. — Boads, Paths, and Bridges. Macmillan. 
*Ravenel, S. W. — Boad Primer for School Children. 
McClurg. Elementary principles and practice of 
road-making. Construction and maintenance, 
causes and effects of good roads. 

Streets 

Cohen, Mrs. J. H. — What We Should All Know 

About Our Streets. Women's Municipal League. 

New York. 
FLEMrNTG, R. D. — Bailroad and Street Transportation. 

Russell Sage Foundation. 
GuTMANN, L. — The Motorman and His Duties. Mc- 

Graw HiU Book Co. 

Bailroads 

Crump, I. — The Boys' Book of Bailroads. Dodd, Mead. 

*HusBAND, J. — The Story of the Pullman Car. Stokes. 

Johnson and van Metre. — Principles of Bailroad 

Transportation, Appleton. Full discussion of all 

matters connected with railroads. 



206 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Talbot, F. A. A. — Railway Wonders of the World. 

Cassell. 
Talbot, F. A. A. — Railway Conquest of the World. 

Heinemann. 
*Warman, Cy. — The Story of the Railroad. Appleton. 

Water 

*CHATTERTO]sr, E. K. — Sailing Ships and Their Story. 
Lippincott. 

*CooKB, A. 0. — A Day in a Ship Yard. Oxford Univer- 
sity Press. 

*DoRLiNG, T. — All Aiout Ships. Cassell.. 

*Grant, Gordon. — The Story of the Ship. McLoughlin 
Bros. Large colored pictures showing ships from, 
early times to the present. Short descriptions 
underneath. 

*Hall, C. — Conquests of the Sea. — ^Blackie. What the 
sea is, the beginning of shipping, birth of steam 
navigation, etc. 

*HowDEN, J. B. — The Boys' Book of Steamships. Stokes. 
Comprehensive history of steam-boats, their evolu- 
tion and construction, illustrated. 

*Ingersoll, E. — The Book of the Ocean. Century. Tides, 

currents, building of ships, early voyages, etc. 
Talbot, F. A. A. — Steamship Conquest of the World. 
Lippincott. "Written to show how water transporta- 
tion has developed ; the rapid growth of the express 
liner during the last hundred years. Illustrated. 

Communication 

*Butler, F. 0. — The Story of Paper Maying. Butler 
Paper Co., Chicago. 

*Casson, H. N. — The History of the Telephone. Mc- 
Clnrg. An account in simple language of the 
invention and development of the telephone. 

*Chase and Clow. — Stories of Industry, Vol. 2. Edu- 
cational Pub. Co. 
Clodd, E. — The Story of the Alphabet. Appleton. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 207 

Davenport, C. — The Book: Its History and Develop- 
ment. Van Nostrand. 
Dibble, G. B. — The Newspaper. Holt. 

*DuNN, A. W. — The Community and the Citizen. Heath. 

*FoRMAN, S. E. — Stories of Useful Inventions. Century. 

*GiBSON, C. R. — How Telegraphs and Telephones WorJc. 
Lippincott. 

*HoLLAND, R. S. — Historic Inventions. Jacobs. 

*Jewett, F. G. — Town and City. Ginn. 

*Lane, M. a. L. — Industries of To-day. Ginn. 

*MowRY, W. A. AND A. M, — American Inventions and 

Inventors. Silver, Burdette. 
Rawlings, G. B. — The Story of Books. Appleton. 

*Reavis, "W. C. — Telephone and Telegraph. Lessons in 
Community and National Life, Series B. U. S. 
Bureau of Education, 1918. 

♦Reynolds, M. J. — How Man Conquered Nature. Mac- 
millan. 

*Rocheleau, W. F. — Great American Industries, Vols. 
Ill and IV. Flanagan. 

*Rolt-Wheeler, F. W. — Boy with the United States 

Mail. Lothrop. 
Sindall, R. W. — The Manufacture of Paper. Van 

Nostrand. 
Steffens, L. — The Business of a Newspaper. Scribner's 

Magazine, October, 1897. 
Towers, W. H. — Masters of Space. Harper. Com- 
munications among the ancients, signals past and 
present, fore-runners of the telegraph, the cable, 
the telephone, etc. 

*Van Buskirk and Smith. — The Science of Everyday 
Life. Houghton. 

Conservation of Wealth 

♦Austin, 0. P. — Uncle Sam's Secrets. Appleton. 
•Calpee, J, E. — Rural Arithmetic. Ginn. 
*DoLE, C. F. — The Young Citizen. Heath. 
Fiske, a. K. — The Modern Bank. Appleton. 



208 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Harris, R. S. — Practical Banking. Houghton. 

*H0YT AND Peet. — Everyday Arithmetic. Houghton, 

*KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — Money in the Community and the 
Home. Lessons ii;i Community and National Life, 
Series C. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. 
KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — The Use of Money. Bobbs Merrill. 
Lanier, C. — The Working of a Bank. Seribner's Mag- 
azine, May, 1897. 

*Lyon, L. S. — The Services of Money. Lessons in Com- 
munity and National Life, Series A. U. S. Bureau 
of Education, 1918. 

*Marriott, C. — Uncle Sam's Business. Harper. 

*MouLTON, H. G. — The Commercial Bank and Modern 
Business. Lessons in Community and National 
Life, Series A. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. 

*McLouGHLiN, K. — Before Coins Were Made. Lessons in 
Community and National Life, Series C. 

*IIeticker, R. — The Minting of Coins. Lessons in Com- 
munity and National Life, Series C. 

*Reynolds, M. J. — How Man Conquered Nature. Mac- 
millan. 

Education 

*DoLE, C. F. — The You7ig Citizen. Heath. 
*DuNN, A. W. — The Community and the Citizen. Heath. 
*HiLL, M. — Lessons for Junior Citizens. Ginn. 
*NiDA, W. L. — City, State and Nation. Macmillan. 

Itecreation 

Collier, J. — The Lantern Bearers. The Survey, June, 
1915, and January, May and July, 1916. 
*HiLL, M. — Lessons for Junior Citizens, Ginn. 
*Jewett, F. G. — Town and City. Ginn. 
*MoRRis, C. — Home Life in All Lands, Vol. II. Lip- 

pineott. 
Mackaye, p. — The Civic Theatre in Relation to Re- 
demption of Leisure. Mitchell Kennerly. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OP SOURCES 209 



Religion 

*Abbott, E. — Charity in the Community. Lessons in 

Community and National Life, Series C. U. S. 

Bureau of Education, 1918. 

Cutting, R. F. — The Church and Society. Macmillan. 

*DuNN, A. W. — The Community and the Citizen. Heath. 

*M0RRis, C. — Home Life in All Lands, Vol. JI. Lip- 

pincott. 

*SoAKES, T. G. — The Church as a Social Institution. 

Lessons in Community and National Life, Series B. 

Protection 

Against Fires 

*Crump, I. — The Boys' Booh of Firerrten. Dodd, Mead. 

•DowNES, A. M. — Fire Fighters and Their Pets. Harper. 

*HiLL, C. T. — Fighting a Fire. Century. 

*HiLL, M. — Lessons for Junior Citizens. Ginn. 

*Jenks, T. — The Fireman. McClurg. 

*Jewett, F. G. — Town and City. Ginn. 

*RiCHMAN AND Wallach. — Good CitizcnsMp. American 

Book Co. 
Weeks, A. D. — The Avoidance of Fires. Heath. 

Against Disease 
*Bramhall, F. D. — Row the City Cares for Health. 
Lessons in Community and National Life, Series C. 
U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. 
*DuNN, A. W. — The Community and the Citizen. Heath. 
*HiLL, M. — Lessons for Junior Citizens. Ginn. 
Hutchinson, W. — Community Hygiene. Houghton. 
*Jewett, F. G. — Town and City. Ginn. 
*RiCHMAN AND Wallach. — Good CitizensMp. American 

Book Co. 
*RiTCHiE, J. W. — Primer of Sanitation. World Book Co. 
Sedgwick, W. T. — Principles of Sanitary Science and 
the Pullic Health. Macmillan. 



210 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

SoPER, Gr. A. — Modern Methods of Street Cleaning. 

Engineering News Co. 
Waring, G. E. — Street Cleaning. Doubleday. 

Against Anti-Social Persons 

*Crump, I. — Boys' Booh of Policemen. Dodd, Mead. 
*DoLE, C, F. — The Young Citizen. Heath. 
*HiLL, M. — Lessons for Junior Citizens. Ginn. 
Osborne, T. M. — Society and Prisons. Yale University 
Press. 
*RiCHMAN AND Wallach. — Good CitizcnsMp. American 

Book Co. 
Woods, A. — Policeman and Public. Yale University 
Press. 

Groveriunent 

*Ayres, E. — Custom as the Basis for Law. Lessons in 

Community and National Life, Series C. U. S. 

Bureau of Education, 1918. 
*DoLE, C. F. — TJie Young Citizen. Heath. 
*DuNN, A. W. — Cooperation through Law. Lessons in 

Community and National Life, Series C. 
*Edwards, G. — How State Laws are Made and Enforced. 

Lessons in Community and National Life, Series B. 
*Spencer, W. H. — The Development of a System of 

Laws. Lessons in Community and National Life, 

Series B. 

Primitive Life 

*Bayliss, C. K. — Lolami, the Little Cliff Dweller. Public 
School Publishing Co. 

*Brown, E. V. — When the World Was Young. World 
Book Co. Short accounts by various authors on 
various historical topics; the story of the food 
quest, the story of transportation, the story of 
lighting and heating. 
Clodd, E. — The Childhood of the World. Macmillan. 
A simple account of man in early times. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 211 

*Dopp, K. E. — The Tree Dwellers. Rand. Primitive 
man, his ways of getting fire, and the changes 
wrought in society by its use, 

*Dopp, K, E. — The Early Cave Men. Rand. Improve- 
ments in clothing, in devices for carrying, and in 
tools and weapons. 

*Dopp, K. E. — The Later Cave Men. Rand. The mas- 
tery of many mechanical appliances, and the devel- 
opment of social cooperation. 

*Dopp, K. E.— TTie Early Sea People. Rand. The life 
of fishing people. The social cooperation involved in 
manufacturing and in expeditions on the deep seas. 

*Elliott, G. F. Scott. — Stories of Savage Life. Lip- 
pincott. Description of the life of primitive man, 
his customs, language, occupations, beliefs, arts, 
crafts, etc. Illustrated. 

*IIall, H. R. — Days before History. Crowell. 
Hutchinson, H. W. — Extinct Monsters. Appleton. 
Account of animals of prehistoric times. Illus- 
trated. 
JOLY, J. — Man iefore Metals. Appleton. Origin and 
use of fire, clothing, industries, weapons, imple- 
ments, primitive agriculture, domestication of ani- 
mals, beginning of navigation, etc. 

Mason, O. T. — Origins of Invention. Seribner. A 
study of industry among primitive people. Illus- 
trated. 

Mason, 0. T. — Woman's Share in Primitive Culture. 
Appleton. Description of women's work in early 
times as food-bringer, weaver, skin-dresser, potter, 
etc. Illustrated. 

Mason, 0. T. — Primitive Travel and Transportation. 
Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1894. 

Mason, 0. T. — The Human Beast of Burden. U. S. 
National Museum Report, 1887. An account of 
primitive methods and the evolution of travelling. 
Illustrated. 

*McIntyre, M. a. — The Cave Boy of the Age of Stone. 
Appleton. 



212 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

*M0RRis, C. — Home Life in All Lands, Vol. 2. Lippin- 

cott. Manners and customs of uncivilized peoples. 
Nadaillac, J. F. A. — Manners and Monuments of Pre- 
historic People. Putnam. Food, weapons, tools, 
clothing, industry, social organization. 
Starr, F. — Some First Steps in Huriian Progress. 
Chautauqua Press. Fire-making, food getting, 
basketry and pottery, houses, dress, etc. 
Tylor, E. B. — Anthropology. Appleton. 
*Waterloo, S. — The Story of Ah. Doubleday. Portions 
can be used with children to illustrate various 
phases of primitive life. 



OUR NATIONAL LIFE 
General 

*Allen, N. B. — Geographical and Industrial Studies, 
United States. Ginn 

*BiSHOP AND Keller. — Industry and Trade. Ginn. 
Brigham, a. p. — Geographic Influences in American 
History. Ginn. 

*Carpenter, p. G. — Geographical Reader — Am,erica. 
American Book Co 

•Chamberlain, J. F. and A. H. — The Continents and 
Their People — North America. Maemillan. 

*Drter, C. R. — Elementary Economic Geography. Amer- 
ican Book Co. 

*FiSHER, E. F. — Resources and Industries of the United 

States. Ginn. 
Herbertson, a. J. — North America. Maemillan. 

*HoTCHKiss, C. W. — Representative Cities of the United 
States. Houghton. The cities selected represent 
great centers of industry and life. Just enough of 
the history of the city is given to explain how it is 
a response to the physical and economic environ- 
ment. 

*KiNG, C. F. — This Continent of Ours. Lothrop. 
Latane, J. H. — America as a World Power. Harper. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 213 

♦Monroe and Buckbee. — Our Country and Its People. 
Harper. Simply written, giving the essential facts 
of the industries of this country as related to its 
outstanding physical features, 
♦Price, 0. W. — The Land We Live In. Small. Forest, 
mineral, and water resources of the United States. 
Shows why conservation is necessary. 

Russell, I. C. — North America. Appleton. 

Semple, E. C. — American History and Its Geographic 
Conditions. Houghton. Traces the influences of 
geographic conditions in settlements and success in 
overcoming obstacles. 

Shaleb, N. S. — Nature and Man in America. Ginn. 
Designed for beginners in geology. Has direct bear- 
ing upon the relation of man and environment. 

Shaleb, N. S. — The Story of Our Continent. Ginn. 
Simple account of the geological development of the 
continent and its influence on history. 

Smith, J. R. — Commerce and Industry. Holt. 

Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story, Houghton. Vols. 
12, 13. The United States. 

Grovemment 

The Skip of State ly Those at the Helm. Ginn. Descrip- 
tions of the departments of the national govern- 
ment by prominent men. 

♦Austin, 0. P. — Uncle Sam's Secrets. Appleton. In 
story form. 

*Beard, C. a. and M. R. — American Citizenship. Mae- 
millan. 

*Du Put, W. A. — Uncle Sam, Wonder Worker. Stokes. 
Account of the odd activities of the government 
bureaus. 

*Du PuY, W. A. — Uncle Sam's Modern Miracles. Stokes. 
Account of national departments dealing with 
roads, census, immigration, wealth, etc. 

*Fbanc, a. — Use Your Government. Dutton. Stresses 
what the government does for various classes of 
people — farmers, settlers, immigrants, etc. 



214 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Hart, A. B. — Actual Government. Longmans. 
*Marriott, C. — U^icle Sam's Business. Harper. 
Tufts, J. H. — Our Democracy. Holt. 

History 

European Background 

*Atkinson, a. M. — European Beginnings of American 
History. Ginn. 
Cheney, E. P. — European Background of American 
History. Harper. 
*Hall, J. — Our Ancestors in Europe. Silver, Burdette. 
*NiDA, "W. — Dawn of American History in Europe. Mac- 
millan. 

Indians 

*Chase, a. — Children of the Wigwam. Educational 
Pub. Co. Eeading book for children, showing child- 
life among the Indians. Illustrated. 
Curtis, N. — The Indians' Book. Harper. "Written by 
the Indians and recorded, edited, and arranged by 
Miss Curtis. Songs and music. 
*Eastman, C. a. — Wigwam Evenings. Little, Brown. 

Sioux folk tales retold by an Indian. 
*Eastman, C. a. — Indian Child Life. Little, Brown. 

Real Indian stories told by a real Indian. 
*Eastman, C. a. — Indian Boyhood. Doubleday, Page. 
An account of Indian boy-life told by an Indian. 
Training, games, and sports, playmates, etc, 
Fletcher, A. — Indian Story and Song from North 
America. Small, Maynard. Songs, gathered di- 
rectly from the Indians, given in connection with 
the story or ceremony with which it has association. 
Fletcher, C. A. — Indian Games and Dances with Native 
Songs. Birchard. Arranged from American In- 
dian ceremonials and sports, so that young people 
can take part in them. Music and setting given. 
GODDARD, P. E. — Indiana of the Southwest. American 
Museum of Natural History. Handbook Series 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 215 

No. 2. Takes up remains of the Cliff Dwellers, and 

account of the Modern Pueblos. 

Geinnell, G. B. — Blackfeet Indian Stories. Scribner. 
Folk-lore of the Blackfeet Indians. 

Grinnell, G. B. — Black foot Lodge Tales. Scribner, 
Indian stories, also much information as to Indian 
character, social organization, etc. 

Grinnell, G. B. — The Story of the Indian. Appleton. 
Suitable for older children. Contents : home, recre- 
ations, implements and industries, etc. 
♦Humphrey, M. S. (Editor). — The Boy's Catlin. Scrib- 
ner. Rewritten from the larger work of Catlin. 
Account of religious ceremonies, corn-dance, buffalo- 
dance, lassoing wild horses, etc. 

James, G. W. — Indian Basketry. Radiant Life Press.' 
Very full account describing methods of making 
baskets, materials used, weaves, forms and designs, 
their relation to art, symbolism and ceremonial. 
Fully illustrated. 

James, G. W. — Indian Blankets and tJieir Makers. Me- 
Clurg, Very full account of blankets and blanket 
weaving, designs, symbolism, ceremonials, etc. 
Fully illustrated. 
*Jenks, a. E. — The Childhood of Ji-Shih, the Ojihwa. 
Atkinson. In the introduction, W. T. McGee says 
of the author: "He displays deep insight into In- 
dian character and describes the Red Child as that 
person might have described himself in his own 
wigwam to his own grandchildren in the evening 
of his life." 

Mason, 0. T. — Aboriginal American Basketry. U. S. 
National Museum Report, 1902. Exhaustive treat- 
ment with many illustrations. 

Morgan, L. H. — Houses and House Life of the American 
Indians. Contributions to North American Eth- 
nology, Vol. IV. Gives various details about the 
type of house and social customs. Illustrated. 

•Snedden, G. S. — Docas the Indian Boy of Santa Clara. 
Heath. Excellent story of primitive Indian life. 



216 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

*Staer, F. — American Indians. Heath. Reader for 
children. Account of Indian life and customs from 
authoritative sources. Contents: house, dress, sign 
language, picture writing, dances and ceremonials, 
etc. 

WisSLER, C. — North American Indians of the Plains. 
American Museum of Natural History, New York. 
Handbook Series No. 1. Takes up food, clothing, 
shelter, industrial arts, social organization, religion, 
etc. 

WisSLER, C. — The American Indian. McMurtrie. A 
general summary. Contents; Domestication of 
animals, methods of transportation, the textile arts, 
the ceramic arts, decorative designs, architecture, 
special inventions, literature, music, social groups, 
mythology, etc. 

Discovery and Exploration 

BOURNE, E. G.— Spain in America. Harper. 

Dickson, M. S. — From the Old World to the New. Mac- 
millan. 

Dickson, M. S. — Pioneers and Patriots in Early Ameri- 
can History. Macmillan. 

FiSKE, J. — Discovery of America. Houghton. Ancient 
America, Pre-Columbian Voyages, Search for the 
Indians, etc. 

FiSKE, J. — New France and New England. Houghton. 

Griffis, "W. E. — The Romance of Discovery. Wilde, 
Discovery and exploration of America treated not 
as unconnected episodes, but as links in a chain of 
events and as one of the many phases in the ever 
continuous movements of the Aryan race, 
•McMuRRY, Charles. — Pioneers of Land and Sea. Mac- 
millan. Accounts of early explorers. 

Parkman, Francis. — Montcalm and Wolfe. Little, 
Brown. 

Parkman, Francis. — La Salle and the Discovery of the 
Great West. Little, Brown. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 217 

♦Parkman, Francis. — Rivals for America. Compiled by 
L. Hasbrouck. Little, Brown. Selections from 
"France and England in America." 
Parkman, Francis. — The Struggle for a Continent. 

Compiled by P. Edgar. Little, Brown. 
*Seelye, Mrs. E. (Eggleston). — The Story of Columbus. 

Appleton. 
Thwaites, R. 6. — France in America. Harper. 
Tyler, L. G. — England in America. Harper. 

Colonies 

Bruce, P. A. — Economic History of Virginia. Mac- 
millan. An inquiry into the material conditions 
of the people based on original and contemporaneous 
records. 

Bradford, W. — History of Plymouth Plantation. Scrib- 

ner. 
♦Coffin, C. C. — Old Times in the Colonies. Harper. 
Customs, social life. 

Cooke, J. E. — Stories of the Old Dominion and Vir- 
ginia. American Book Co. 

Doyle, J. A. — English Colonies in America. Holt. 
*Drake, S. a. — Making of New England. Scribner. 
*Drake, S. a. — Making of Virginia and the Middle 
Colonies. Scribner. 

Earle, a. M. — Customs and Fashion^s in Old New Eng- 
land. Scribner. Domestic service, holidays, sports, 
etc. 

Earle, A. M. — The Sahhath in Puritan New England. 
Scribner. The New England meeting house, the 
old-fashioned pews, church music, observance of the 
day, etc. 

Earle, A. M. — Colonial Days in Old New York. Scrib- 
ner. The Life of a day, education and child life, 
Dutch town homes, farm homes, farm houses, holi- 
days, sports, etc. 

Earle, A. M. — Home Life in Colonial Days. Macmillan. 
Description of lighting, serving of meals, spinning, 
weaving. Illustrated. 



218 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Earle, a. M. — Costume of Colonial Times. Seribner. 
Detailed descriptions of various articles of clothing, 
gathered from old letters, wills, newspapers, etc. 
Earle, A. M. — Child Life in Colonial Days. Macmillan. 
School books, story and picture books, toys, schools 
and school life, 
Earle, A, M. — Stage-coach and Tavern Days. Mac- 
millan. Old Time Taverns, tavern fare and tavern 
ways, early stage-coaches, and other vehicles, etc. 
FiSKE, J. — The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America. 
Houghton. 

*Gilman, a. — The Colonization of America. Lothrop. 

*Gripfis, W. E. — Romance of American Colonization. 
Wilde. 

*Hart, a. B. — Colonial Children. Macmillan. Source 
reader. Historical sources have been selected and 
are interesting to children and simple enough for 
them to understand. 

*Hawthorne, Nathaniel. — Grandfather's Chair. Hough- 
ton. True stories of New England History. 

*MacElroy, M. H. — Work and Play in Colonial Days. 
Macmillan. 

*Pumphrey, M. B. — Pilgrim Stories. Eand McNally. 

*Smith, H. E. — Colonial Days and Ways. Century. 

*Stone and Ficket. — Every Day Life in the Colonies. 
Heath. Pastimes, observances of Sunday, candle 
making, letter writing, etc. 

*Tappan, E. M. — Letters from Colonial Children. 
Houghton. "Planned to give an idea of how life 
in some of the representative American colonies 
might have seemed to children." 
Thwaites, Er. G. — The Colonies. Longmans. 

*TiFPANY, N. M. — Pilgrims and Puritans. Ginn. 

♦Tiffany, N. M. — From Colony to Commonwealth. Ginn. 
Weeden, W. B. — Economic and Social History of New 
England. Houghton. Early industries, domestic 
life, manners and customs, travel, roads, etc. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 219 

National 

*Barber, L. L. — A Nursery History of tJie United, States. 
Stokes. 

^Baldwin, J. — Discovery of the Old Northwest and Its 
Settlement by the French. American Book Co. A 
series of connected sketches. Gives the atmosphere 
of pioneer settlements. 

*Beard and Bagley. — History of the American People. 
Macmillan. A new school text, giving more atten- 
tion to the industrial and social phases of our 
national development than the older school 
books. 

^BOGART, E. L. — Economic History of the United States. 
Longmans. Traces growth of industry, agriculture, 
commerce, population, from earliest times to present 
day. 

*Brigham, a. p. — From Trail to Railway. Ginn. An 
historical account of the great transportation lines 
which cross the Appalachian Mountains ; shows how 
surface features have determined routes of travel. 

*Catherwood, M. H. — Heroes of the Middle West. Ginn. 
Charmingly written sketches. 
CoMAN, K. — Economic Beginnings of the Far West. 
Macmillan. 

*CoMAN, K. — Industrial History of the United States. 
Macmillan. 

*Drake, S. a. — The Making of the Great West. Scrib- 

ner, 
Dunbar, S. — The History of Travel in the United States. 
Bobbs, Merrill. Reference books, four volumes, 
"showing the development of travel and transporta- 
tion from the crude methods of the canoe and the 
dog-sled to the highly organized railway systems 
of the present, together with a narrative of the 
human experiences and changing social conditions 
that accompanied the enormous conquest of the 
continent. ' ' 
Eggleston, E. — History of the United States and its 
People. Appleton. 



220 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

*Fairbanks, H. W. — The Western United States. Heath. 

Account of the physical conditions of the Pacific 

States and effect in history. 
FiSKB, J.^ — The War of Independence. Houghton. 
FiSKE, J. — The Critical Period in American History. 

1783-1789. Houghton. 
*Haet, a. B. — Camps and Firesides of the Revolution. 

Macmillan. Source reader. A clear imaginative 

picture of the people and time. Emphasis on the 

social. 
Hart, A. B. — National Ideals Historically Traced. 

Harper. 
Haet, a. B. — Social and Economic Forces in American 

History. Harper. 
Hitchcock, E. — Louisiana Purchase. Ginn. 
JuDSON, H. P. — The Growth of the American Nation. 
Laut, a. C. — Pathfinders of the West. Macmillan. 
*McMuRRY, C. A. — Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley, 

Macmillan. 
*McMuRRY, C. A. — Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains 

and the West. Macmillan. 
Parkman, F. — The Oregon Trail. Little, Brown. Source 

book. 
Paxson, F. L. — The Last American Frontier. Mac- 
millan. Accounts of the opening up of the West. 

Contents : The Indian Frontier, the Santa Fe Trail, 

the Oregon Trail, California and the Forty-Niners, 

Pike's Peak or Bust, etc. 
*IloosEVELT, Theodore. — Winning the West.— Putnam. 

History of frontier action, treating dramatic and 

picturesque aspects of expansion across the AUe- 

ghanies. 
Sanford, a. H. — The Story of Agriculture in the 

United States. Heath. The more important facts 

of our agricultural history from the time of the 

Indians to the present. 
Sparks, E. E. — United States of America. Putnam. 

Strong on economic and social phases. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 221 

Sparks, E. E. — The Expansion of the American People. 
Scott Foresman. Development social and territorial 
from the time of the colonies to the present day. 

Tbyon, R. M. — Household Mam,ufacturers of the United 
States. University of Chicago Press. Traces de- 
velopment from time of colonies to time of machine 
industry. 

Wright, C. D. — Industrial Evolution of the United 
States. Chatauqua Press, Evolution of industry 
from the colonial period to the present, the labor 
movement, influence of machinery upon labor. 

THE STUDY OF OTHER NATIONS 
General 

*Allen, a. E. — Children of the Palm Lands. Educa- 
tional Pub. Co. Life and products of the hot 
countries. 

*Andrews, J. — Seven Little Sisters. Ginn. Short 
descriptions of the lives of Eskimo, desert, moun- 
tain, Japanese children. 

*Andrews, J. — Each and All. Ginn. Stories giving 
information about the homes and customs of chil- 
dren of various nationalities. 

*Barnard, H. C. — How Other People Live. Macmillan. 
Pictures (many in color) and descriptions. 

*Chance, L. M, — Little Folks of Many Lands. Ginn. 

*DuTTON, M. B. — In Field and Pasture. American Book 
Co. Short Stories of child life in simple language ; 
the Pueblo, children of the Nile Valley, the Navajo 
boy, children of Tibet, Russia, etc. Illustrated. 
Lyde, L, W. — Man in Many Lands. Macmillan. 

*MiRiCK, G. A. — Home Life Around the World. Hough- 
ton. Written for children from eight to ten years 
of age. Geographical situations typical in climatic 
and physiographic conditions and in natural re- 
sources have been selected. Illustrated by photo- 
graphs by Burton^Holmes. 



<m. THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

*0'Neill, E.—TJie Story of tJie World. Putnam. A 
simple history for boys and girls. Illustrated. 

*Perdue, H. a. — Child Life in Other Lands. Rand Mc- 
Nally. Short stories of Indians, Eskimos, Norwe- 
gians, Dutch, German, Italian, Greek, Japanese, 
Chinese, and American children. Illustrated. 

*Shaw, E. R. — Big People and Little People of Other 
Lands. American Book Co. Simple descriptions 
of people of India, Japan, Philippines, Russia, Hol- 
land, and Arabia. Illustrated. 

*Staer, F. — Strange Peoples. Heath. Reader for chil- 
dren. Short accounts of lives of Mexicans, Finns, 
Lapps, Malays, etc., from authoritative sources. 

*Taylor, Bayard. — Boys of Other Countries. Putnam. 
Accounts of life of children in different countries 
visited. Illustrated. 

*T0LMAN, S. W. — Around the World, Booh II. Silver. 
Stories of Russia, India, Egypt, Scotland. 

North America 

Alaska 

JuDSON, K. B. — Myths and Legends of Alaska. Me- 

Clurg. 
MuiR, J. — Travels in Alaska. Houghton. 
*NixON-RouLET, M. F. — Our Little Alaskan Cousin. 
Page. 

Canada 
*Bealby, J. T. — Peeps at Many Lands — Canada. Mac- 

millan. 
BouRiNOT, J. G. — The Story of Canada. Putnam. 
Burpee and Morgan. — Canadian Life in Town and 

Country. Newnes, London. 
*Coe, F. E. — Our American Neighbors. Silver, Burdette. 
*Home, B. — Peeps at History — Canada. Black. 
Laut, a. C. — Canada, the Empire of the North. Ginn. 
The romantic story of Canada's growth from colony 
to kingdom. 
Macmillan, C. — Canadian Wonder Tales. John Lane. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 223 

*McDoNALD, AND Dalrymple. — Betty in Canada. Little, 

Brown. 
*MacDonald, E. R. — Our Little Canadian Cousin. Page. 
^Marshall, H. E. — Canada's Story. Stokes. 
Gates, D. W. — Canada To-day and Yesterday. Harrap. 

In the form of a series of adventures retold from 

the journals of pioneers, explorers, and travelers. 
*Paekman, F. — Rivals for America. Little. 
*Plummer, M. W. — Roy and Ray in Canada. Holt. 

"Well told and full of information historical and 

geographical." A. L. A. 
Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 

II: Canada. History, stories, etc. 
*WiNSLOW, I. 0. — Our American Neighbors. Heath. 

Cuha 

*Fairpord, F. — Peeps at Many Lands — Cuba. Maemillan. 
*WadEj M. H. — Our Little Cuban Cousin. Page. 

Eskimos 

Nansen, F. — Eshimo Life. Longmans. Appearance 
and dress, cookery, winterhouses, social conditions, 
religious ideas, etc. 

*Peary, R. E. — Snowland Folks. Stokes. 

*Peary, J. — Children of the Arctic. Stokes. Suitable 
for young children. Fully illustrated. 

*Peary, J. — The Snow Baby. Stokes. Suitable for use 

by children. Well illustrated. 
Rink, H. J. — Tales and Traditions of the EskimOi 
Blackwood. 

*ScANDLiN, C. — Hans the Eskimo. Silver, Burdette. 

*ScHWATKA, F. — Children of the Cold. Educational 
Pub. Co. Description of Eskimo children, houses, 
playthings, outdoor sports, Eskimo candy, amuse- 
ments, how their clothes are made, etc. Illustrated. 

*Smith, M. E. — Eskimo Stories. Rand McNaUy. De- 
scribes features of Eskimo life — games, home, food, 
clothing, etc. Illustrated. 



224 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Stefansson, J. — My Life with the Eskimo. Macmillan. 
*Wade, M. H. — Our Little Eskimo Cousin. Page. 

Greenland 

Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. VoL 
8: Greenland, History, life of the People. 

Hawaii 

Alexander, M. C. — The Story of Hawaii. American 

Book Co. 
*Krout, M. H. — Alice's Visit to the Hawaiian Islands. 
American Book Co. Simple descriptions and pic- 
tures based on observations, 
*TwOMBLY, H. S. — Hawaii and Its People. Silver, Bur- 

dette. 
*Wade, M. H. — Our Little Hawaiian Cousin. Page. 

Iceland 

*Leith, Mrs. Disney. — Peeps at Many Lands — Iceland. 
Macmillan. 
Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story. Houghton, Vol. 
8, Iceland. Sagas, life of the people, etc. Accounts 
by various authors. 

Jamaica 
*Henderson, J. — Peeps at Many Lands — Jamaica. Mae^ 
millan. 

Labrador 

*Duncan, N. — Adventures of Billy Topsail. Eevell. 
Adventures of a Labrador fisherman's son and his 
friends. 
Grenpell, W. T. — Tales of Labrador. Houghton. 

Mexico 
*Butler, E. C. — Our Little Mexican Cousin. Page. 
Eggleston and Seelye. — Montezuma and the Conquest 

of Mexico. Dodd. 
Flandrau, C. M. — Viva Mexico. Appleton. 
*Gaines, E. — Lucita; A Child's Story of Old Mexico. 
Rand. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 225 

*6aines and Read. — The Village Shield — a story of 

Mexico. Dutton. 
Hale, S. — The Story of Mexico. Putnam. 
*McDoNALD AND Dalrymple. — Mauuel in Mexico. Little, 
Brown. 
Morris, C. — The Story of Mexico. Winston. Condition 
and modes of life, products of soil, cities, railroads, 
commercial progress, ancient Mexico, etc. 
*Plummer, M. W. — Eoh and Bay in Mexico. Holt. 
"Well told and full of information historical and 
geographical." A. L. A. 
Spence, L. — The Myths of Mexico and Peru. Stokes. 
Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton, Vol. II, 
Mexico. 
*WiNSLOw, I. 0. — Our American Neighbors. Heath. 

Newfoundland 
*Fairford, F. — Peeps at Many Lands — Newfoundland. 
Macmillan. 

Panama 
*Pike, H. L. M. — Our Little Panxima Cousin. Page. 
*Browne, E. a. — Peeps at Many Lands — Panama. Mac- 
millan. 
Bishop, J. B. — Panama Gateway. Scribner, 
*GrAuSE AND Carr. — The Story of Panama. Silver, 
Burdette. History of the making of the canal and 
account of the history of Panama. 

Philippine 

*BuRKS, F. W. — Barbara's Philippine Journey. World 

Book Co. 
*Knapp, a. — The Story of the Philippines. Silver, 

Burdette. 
Le Roy, J. A. — Philippine Life in Town and Country. 

Putnam. 
*MacClintock, S. — The Philippines. American Book 
Co. 
McGoverney, D. 0. — Stories of Long Ago in the Philip- 
pines. World Book Co. 



226 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

*MiTCHELL, A. F. — Paz and Pahlo. World Book Co. 

Stories of two little Filipinos. 
*Wadb, M. H. — Our Little PMlippine Cousin. Page. 

Porto Bico 

*Seabury, J. B. — Porto Bico, the Land of the Bich Port. 

Silver, Burdette. 
*Wade, M. H. — Our Little Porto Bica/n Cousin. Page. 

West Indies 

FiSKE, A. K. — The Story of the West Indies. Putnam. 
Obee, F. A. — The Storied West Indies. Appleton. 

South America 

*Allen, N. B. — Geographical and Industrial Studdes, 

South America. Ginn. 
Babson, R. W. — The Future of South America. Little. 

*BowMAN, I. — South America. Rand McNally. Geo- 
graphic Reader. 

*Browne, E. a. — Peeps ut Many Lands: South America, 
Macmillan. 

*Carpentee, F. G. — Geographical Beader: South Ameri- 
ica. American Book Co. 

*Chamberlain, J. F. — The Continents and Their People 

— South America. Macmillan, 
Butterworth, H. — South America. Doubleday. A 
popularly illustrated history of the struggle for 
liberty in the Andean Republics and Cuba. 
Dawson, T. C. — The Story of the South American Be- 
puhlics. Putnam. 

*FiGYELMESSY, E. H. — Two Boys in the Tropics. Mac- 
millan. Life of a family in South America by 
the mother of the boys. 

*Herbertson, a. J. — Central and South America. Mac- 
millan. 

*Markwick and Smith. — The South American Bepuh- 
lics. Silver, Burdette. 

*NixoN-RouLET, M. F. — Our Little Brazilian Cousin. 
Page. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 227 

Tappan, E. M.—fhe World's Story. Houghton, Vol. 2. 
South America. 
*Wade, M. H. — Twin Travellers in South America. 
Stokes. Trip to Brazil, Argentine, Bolivia, etc., 
told in story form. 

Europe 

General 
*Allen, N. B. — Geographical and Industrial Studies — 

Europe. Ginn. 
*Carpenter, F. G. — Geographical Reader — Europe. 

American Book Co. 
*Chamberlain, J. F. — The Continents and Their People 

— Europe. Macmillan. 
^Heebertson, a. J. — Europe. Macmillan. Readable 
selections from the works of travellers who have 
visited the countries and recorded their observa- 
tions. Illustrated. 
Huntington, E. — The Geography of Europe. Yale 
University Press. A study of the physical 
geography of Europe and of the customs, indus- 
tries, and relationships of the various countries. 
Lyde, L. W. — The Continent of Europe. Macmillan. 

History 

Adams, G. B. — Civilization During the Middle Ages. 
Scribner. 

Ashley, R. L. — Modern European Civilization. Mac- 
millan. 

Cunningham, W. — Western Civilization in Its Economic 
Aspects. Putnam. 

Emerton, E. — Mediaeval Europe. Ginn. 

Emerton, E. — Introduction to the Study of the Middle 
Ages. Ginn. One of the best brief accounts of this 
period. Of special value to beginners. 
*Harding, S. B. — Story of the Middle Ages. Scott Fores- 
man. 

Hazen, C. D. — Modern European History. Holt. 



228 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Ogg, F. a. — A Source Book of Mediaeval History. 
American Book Co. 

Ogg, F. a. — Economic Development of Modern Europe. 
Macmillan. Provides great amount of material 
most useful to teachers who are aiming to give more 
emphasis to the industrial and social side of history 
and geography. 

Ogg, F. a. — Social Progress in Contemporary Europe. 
Macmillan. 

Robinson, J. H. — An Introduction to the History of 
Western Europe. Ginn. 

EoBiNSON AND Beeasted. — OutUncs of European His- 
tory. Ginn. 
*RoBiNSON AND Beaed. — The Development of Modern 
Europe. Ginn. 

Shapieo, J. S. — Modern and Contemporary European 
History. Houghton. 

Austria 
*Mendel, F. E. — Our Little Austrian Cousin. Page. 
Palmee, F. H. E. — Austro-Hungarian Life in Town and 

Country. Putnam. 
Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 
6: Austria-Hungary. Folk-tales and legends^ — ^his- 
tory etc. — accounts by various authors. 

Belgium 

Boulger, D. C. — Belgian Life in Town and Country. 
Putnam. Contents : The two races in Belgium, the 
court and society, burger life in Brussels, the com- 
mercial classes in Antwerp. The manufacturing 
centers, country life, the army and the military 
life. Illustrated. 
*DE Bosscheee, J. — Folk Tales of Flanders. Dodd, Mead. 
*Cammaeets, E. and T. — A Boy of Bruges. Button. A 
story of Belgian Child-Life by a Belgian poet. 
Grippis, W. E. — Belgium. Houghton. Its history, 
legends, industry and modern expansion. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 229 

*JoNCKHEEBE, R. — When I was a Boy in Belgium. Loth.- 
rop. The author describes Belgian child life by 
giving his own true story. 
McManus, B. — Our Little Belgian Cousin. Page. 

*Ormond, G. W. 1^.— Peeps at Many Lands— Belgium. 
Macmillan. 

Bohemia 
*B.'LNDis, J. — Czech Folk Tales. Allen & Unwin, London. 

Maurice, C. E. — The Story of Bohemia. Putnam. 

Monroe, W. S. — Bohemia and the Czechs. Page. 
*WiNSLow, C. V. — Our Little Bohemian Cousin. Page. 

Bulgaria 

Monroe, W. S. — Bulgaria and Her People. Page. 
*WiNSLOw, C. V. — Our Little Bulgarian Cousin. Page. 

Denmark 

*Bay, J. C. — Danish Fairy and Folk Tales. Harper. 
Brochner, J. — Danish Life in Town and Country. 
Putnam. Government and politics — church, army 
and navy — court and society, art, country life, etc. 
Illustrated. 
*Ennes, L. M. — Our Little Danish Cousin. Pa-ge. 
Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story, Vol. 8. Houghton. 
Denmark : Tales, legends, history, etc. Accounts 
by various authors. 
*Thomson, M. p. — Peeps at Many Lands — Denmark. 
Macmillan. 

England 

Cheyney, E. G. — An Introduction to the Industrial and 

Social History of England. Macmillan, 
CoMAN AND Kendall. — History of England. Macmillan. 
Cunningham, W. — The Growth of English Industry 
and Commerce. Cambridge University Press. 
*Finnimore, J. — Peeps at Many Lands — England. Mac- 
millan. 



230 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

*Feeeman, E. a. — Old English History for Children. 
Macmillan, 
Green, J. R. — A Short History of the English People. 
American Book Co. 

*Harding, S. B. — The Story of England. Scott Fores- 
man. A continuous history of England's develop- 
ment clearly and interestingly told. Illustrated. 

*Jacobs, J. — English Fairy Tales. Putnam. 

McManus, B. — Our Little English Cousin. Page. 

*Marshall, H. E. — An Empire Story. Stokes. "Traces 
the development of the British colonies. Attractive 
make-up and treatment." F. J. Olcott. 

^Marshall, H. E. — An Island Story. Stokes. **A 
child's history of England. The biographical side 
Is emphasized and the treatment is romantic. Large 
volume with colored pictures." F. J. Olcott. 

*0'Neill, E. — A Nursery History of England. Stokes. 
Story, A. T. — The Building of the British Empire. 
Putnam. The Story of England's Growth from 
Elizabeth to Victoria. 
Tickner, F. "W. — Social and Industrial History of Eng- 
land. Longmans. 
ToMLiNSON, E. T. — British Isles. Houghton. Geography, 

industries, cities, schools, people and customs. 
Traill and Mann. — Social England. Putnam. A 
record of the progress of the people in religion, 
laws, arts, industry, commerce, science and manners 
from the earliest time to the pigesent day. 

Finland 
*Baldwin, J. — The Sampo. Scribner. The great Fin- 
nish Epic. 
Reade, a. — Finland and the Finns. Dodd, Mead. 
^Thomson, M. P. — Peeps at Many Lands — Finland. 

Macmillan. 
*'WiNSLOW, C. V. — Our Little Finnish Cousin. Page. 

France 
*Bonner, J. — A Child's History of France. Harper. 
Cooke, A. 0. — Stories of France in Days of Old. Stokes. 



BIBIJOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 231 

♦Button, M. B. — Little Stories of France. American 
Book Co. A cheap but excellent text-book volume 
of French history. 
Edwards, M. B. B. — Home Life in France. McClurg. 
*FiNNEMOKE, J, — Peeps at Many Lands — France. Mac- 
millan. 
Hassall, a. — The French People. Appleton. 
Lynch, L. B. — French Life in Town and Country. Put- 
nam. 
McManus, B. — Our Little French Cousin. Page. 
*McDoNALD and Dalrymple, — Colette in France. Little, 

Brown. 
♦McGregor, M. — The Story of France told to Boys and 

Girls. Stokes. 
Pitman, L. W. — Stories of Old France. American Book 

Co. 
♦Porter, L. S. — Genevieve. Button. 
♦QuiLLER-CoucH, A. T. (Retold by). — The Sleeping 
Beauty and Other Fairy Tales from the old French. 
Boran. 
♦LuGARD, F. L. — Hector. Little, Brown. 
Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 
5: France. History, etc. Accounts by various 
authors. 

Germany 

Baring-Gould and Gilman. — The Story of Germany. 

Putnam. 
Dawson, "W. H. — German Life in Town and Country. 

Putnam. 
♦Button, M. B. — Little Stories of Germany. American 
Book Co. Separate stories arranged so as to form a 
connected account of the history of Germany begin- 
ning with the mythological heroes and extending to 
the present day, 
♦Marshall, H. E. — History of Germany. Stokes. 
♦McBoNALD AND Balrymplb. — Fritz in Germany. Little, 
Brown. 



232 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

*MuLLER, M. — Elsheth, A Story of German Home Life. 

Button. 
SiDGwiCK, C. — Home Life in Germany. Macmillan. 
Housewives, servants, food, shops, and markets, 
sports and games, peasant life, etc. 

*SiDGwiCK, C. — Peeps at Many Lands — Germany. Mac- 
millan. 
Tappan, E. M. — TJie World's Story. Houghton. VoL 
7: Germany. History, etc. Accounts by various 
authors. 

*"Wade, M. H. — Our Little German Cousin. Page. 

Greece 
*Best, S. M. — Greece and Borne. Macmillan. 
*BoNNER, J. — A Child's History of Greece. Harper. 
*Browne, E. a. — Peeps at Many Lands — Greece. Mac- 
millan. 
*BucKLEY, E. F. — Children of the Dawn. Stokes. Old 

Tales of Greece. 
Bury, J. B. — History of Greece. Macmillan. 
BLiJMNER, H. — Home Life of the Ancient Greeks. Funk. 
*CowLES, J. D. — Our Little Spartan Cousin of Long Ago. 

Page. 
*CowLES, J. D. — Our Little Athenian Cousin of Long 

Ago. Page. 
Davis, W. S. — A Day in Old Athens. AUyn. A pic- 
ture of Athenian life. 
*Demetrios, G. — When I was a Boy in Greece. Lothrop. 

Written from an account given by a Greek boy. 
•Dragoumis, J. D. — Under Greek Skies. Dutton. Stories 

of life of Greek children of to-day. 
*GuERBER, H. A. — Story of the Greeks. American Book 

Co. 
GuLiCK, C. B. — The Life of the Ancient Greeks. Apple- 
ton. Aims to give the essential facts of the daily 
life of the Greeks. Takes up houses, home life, 
articles of food, clothing, social life, travel, etc. 
Harrison, J. A. — The Story of Greece. Putnam. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 233 

•Lee, J. B.^Mr. Achilles. Dodd, Mead. The story of 
the friendship between a little girl who loves Greece 
and a Greek fruit-seller. Full of the brotherhood 
of races. 
Mahappy, J. P. — Social Life in Greece. Macmillan. 
Mahapfy, J. P. — Old Greek Life. American Book Co. 
Moore, M. — Days in Hellas. Jacobs. 
*NixoN-RouLET, M. F. — Our Little Grecian Cousin. 

Page. 
*Tappan, E. M. — Story of the Greek People. Houghton. 
Tappan, B. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 
4: Greece. 

Holland 

*D0DGE, M. M. — Hans Brinker and the Silver Skates 
(Numerous Editions). Aims to give just ideas of 
of Holland, its resources and every day life of the 
people. Based on writers of Dutch history, litera- 
ture and art. 

*D0DGE, M. M. — The Land of Pluck. Century. Descrip- 
tion of Holland and its people, and stories. 

•Gripfis, W. E. — Brave Little Holland. Houghton. A 
bird's eye view. How a Dam Became a City. "Writ- 
ten in simple form. 

•Grippis, W. E. — Dutch Fadry Tales. Crowell. 

*Grippis, W. E. — Young People's History of Holland. 
Houghton. From early times to the present cen- 
tury. Illustrated. 

*Groot, C. de. — When I was a Girl in Holland. Lothrop. 
Hough, P. "K.— Dutch Life in Town and Country. Put- 
nam. Material characteristics, court and society, 
workmen of the towns, peasant life, amusements, 
arts, religion, etc. Illustrated. 

•JuNGMAN, B. — Peeps at Many Lands — Holland. Mac- 
millan. 

McManus, B. — Our Little Dtuch Cousin. Page. 

•McDonald and Dalrymple. — Maria in Holland. Little, 
Brown. 



234 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Meldrum, D. S. — Home Life in Holland. Macmillan. 
Dutch interiors, the country and the home. 

Rogers, J. B. T. — The Story of Holland. Putnam, 

History from early days to modem times. 
*Smith, M. E. J. — Holland Stories. Rand McNally. 

Tappan, E. M. — TJie World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 
7: The Netherlands, History, social life and cus- 
toms-accounts by various authors. 

Hungary 
*KovER, H. T. DE. — Peeps at Many Lands — Hungary. 

Macmillan. 
*NixON-RouLET, M. F. — Our Little Hungarian Cousin^ 

Page. 
*PoGANY, N. — The Hungarian Fairy Booh. Stokes. 
Vauberg, a. — The Story of Hungary. Putnam. 

Ireland 
*CoLUM, p. — A Boy in Erin. Dutton. Irish Country 

life, folk lore and hero stories. 
*CuRTiN, J. — Myths and Folk-Lore of Ireland. Little, 

Brown. 
Deasb, a. — Mother Erin. Sands. Her ancient history, 
some of her cities, some of her legends and tradi- 
tions, customs and superstitions, games, etc. 
*H0ME, B. — Ireland. Black. 

Johnson, C. — The Isle of the Shamrock. Macmillan. 
* Joyce, P. W. — A Child's History of Ireland. Long-^ 
mans. Literature, art, music, dwellings, food, dress, 
family life, legends, political history. 
*JoYCE, P. W. — A Heading Book in Irish History. Long- 
mans. 
Lawless, E. — The Story of Ireland. Putnam. 
*McDoNALD and Dalrymple. — Kathleen in Ireland. Lit- 
tle, Brown. 
Tappan, E. M. — The World's History. Houghton. Vol. 
10 : Ireland. History, life of the people. Accounts 
of various authors. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 235 

*HiNKSON, K, T. — Peeps at Mawy Lands — If eland. Mac- 

millan. 
*"Wade, M. H. B. — Our Little Irish Cousin. Page. 
* Yeats, W. B. — Irish Fairy Tales. Burt. 

Italy 

*Ambrosi, M. — When I Was a Girl in Italy. Lothrop. 
*' Marietta Ambrosi tells of her home life, play- 
mates, games, work." F. J. Olcott. 
*Basile, G. — Stories from the Pentamerone. Maemillan. 

Folk tales of old Italy. 
Bury, J. B. — History of the Roman Empire. American 

Book Co. 
Church, A. J. — Roman Life in the Days of Cicero. 
Maemillan. 
*CoLLODi, C. — Pinnochio. (Many editions.) 
DuFP-GoRDON, L. — Home Life in Italy. Maemillan. 
*FiNNEMORE, J. — Peeps at Many Lands. — Italy. Mae- 
millan. 
Fowler, W. W. — Social Life of Rome. Chatauqua 
Home Reading Circle. Home life, holidays, re- 
ligion, etc. 
GiLMAN, A. — The Story of Rome. Putnam. 
*GuERBER, H. A. — Story of the Romans. American Book 

Co. 
*Harding, C. H. and S. B. — The City of the Seven Hills. 

Scott Foresman. 
Johnson, H. W. — The Private Life of the Romans. 
Scott Foresman. The family, the name, house and 
its furniture, dress, food and meals, amusements 
baths, travel, sources of income, the Roman day, etc. 
*McDonald and Dalrymple. — Rafael in Italy. Little, 

Brown. 
Miller, W. — The Story of Mediaeval Rome. Putnam. 
Orsi, p. — The Story of Modern Italy. Putnam. 
Sedgwick, H. D. — A Short History of Italy. Houghton. 
*Tappan, E. M. — Story of the Roman People. Houghton. 



236 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Tappan, E. M.—TJie World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 
5: Italy. History, literature, art — accounts by 
various authors. 

ViLLARi, L. — Italian Life in Town and Country. Put- 
nam. Division of the population, questions of 
wealth and poverty, home life, political life, re- 
ligious life and thought. Agricultural population, 
amusements, literature. 
*Wade, M. H. — Our Little Italian Cousin. Page. 

Norway 

*Aanrud, H. — LishetJi Longfrock. Ginn. Story of a 
Norwegian girl. 

*AsBjORNSEN, P. C. — Fairy Tales from the Far North. 

Burt. 
BoYESEN, H. H. — The Story of Norway. Putnam. His- 
tory from the time of Norsemen to modern times. 

*BoyESEN, H. H. — Boyhood in Norway. Scribner. 

Stories of boy-life in the land of Midnight Sun. 
Daniels, H. K. — Home Life in Norway. Macmillan. 
Children and education, food, women, homes. Illus- 
trated. 

*Dasent, G. W. — East a' the Sun and West o' the Moon. 

Putnam. 
Du Chaillu, p. — The Land of the Midnight Sun. 
Harper. Wealth of material on all sorts of details 
of life and scenery. 

*Ferryman, a. F. M. — Peeps at Many Lands — Norway. 
Macmillan, 

*Hall, J. — Viking Tales. Rand McNally. 

*Martineau, H. — Feats on the Fjords. Dutton. "The 
author brings home to the youthful mind the 
wonders of the northern latitudes. The book opens 
with the long nights and ends with the long days. 
The midnight sun and the northern lights play 
their parts, whilst the beautiful simplicity of farm 
life in the Arctic Circle is unfolded with authorita- 
tive interest. ' ' 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 237 

Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 
8: Norway. Mythology, folk-lore, social life. Ac- 
counts of various authors. 

*Wade, M. H. — Our Little Norwegian Cousin. Page. 

*Walter, L. E. — Norse and Lapp. Black. A Norwegian 
winter, winter life in the country, summer life in 
the country, and on the fringe of the Arctic. The 
wandering Lapps, etc. 

*ZwiLGMEYEE, D. — Johnny Blossom (from the Norwegian 
by E. Poulsson). Pilgrim Press. Every day life 
of a Norwegian boy. 

*ZwiLGMEYEE, D. — What Happened to Inger Johanne 
(from the Norwegian by E. Poulsson). Lothrop. 
Every-day life of a Norwegian girl. 

Tolamd 
*Gardneb, M. M. — Peeps at Many Lands — Poland. Mac- 

millan. 
*Mendel, F. E. — Our Little Polish Cousin. Page. 
MoEPiLL, W. R. — Story of Poland. Putnam. Country 
and people, sagas, the Poles as subjects of Russia, 
Austria and Prussia; politics, social conditions. 

Portugal 
-*GooDALL, A. M. — Peeps at Many Lands— Portugal. 
Macmillan. 
HiGGiN, L. — Portugese Life in Town and Country. 
Putnam. Land, people, institutions. 
*Sawyee, E. a. — Our Little Portugese Cousin. Page. 
Stephens, H. M. — The Story of Portugal. Putnam. 

Historical. 
Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 
5: Portugal. 

Roumania 

KiEKE, D. — Domestic Life in Roumania. John Lane. 



238 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

*Teslaer, J. V. — When I Was a Boy in Boumania. 

Lothrop. 
*WiNSLOW, C. V. — Our Little Roumanian Cousin. Page^ 

Bussia 

*CuRTAiN, J. — Myths and Folk-Tales of the Russians, 
Western Slavs, and Magyars. Little, Brown, 

*Haskell, H. E. — Katrinka — the Story of a Bussian 
Child. Button. 

*McDoNALD AND Dalrymple. — Boris in Bussia. Little, 
Brown. 

*MoKRiEViTCH, V. — When I was a Boy in Bussia. Loth- 
rop. 
MoRFiLL, W. E. — The Story of Bussia. Putnam. 
Palmer, F. H. E, — Bussian Life in Town and Country. 
Putnam. The landed proprietor, the peasant in 
serfdom, peasant characteristics, rural self-govern- 
ment, life on a large estate, a country town, Jewish 
life, life in winter. Industrial Co-operative Associa- 
tion. 

*PosTNiKOV, F. A. — Our Little Cossack Cousin. Page. 

*Ransome, a. — Old Peter's Bussian Tales. Stokes. 
Rappoport, a. S. — Home Life in Bussia. Macmillan. 
Villages, peasants, family life, marriage ceremonies, 
religious life, education. 
Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 
6: Russia. Folk-tales, history, etc. — accounts by 
various authors. 

*Van Bergen, R. — Story of Bussia. American Book Co. 

*Wade, M. H. — Our Little Bussian Cousin. Page. 

*Walter, L. E. — Peeps at Many Lands — Bussia. Mac- 
millan. 

*Wheeler, p. — Bussian Wonder Tales. Century. 

Scotland. 

*Black, W. — The Four Macnicols. Harper. Boy life 
on the coast of Scotland. 

*Grierson, E. — Peeps at Many Lands — Scotland. Mac- 
millan. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 239 

*Green, E. M. — The Laird of Glentyre. Dutton. 
Johnson", C. — TJie Land of Heather. Macmillan. RuraL 

and village manners; life and customs. 
Mackintosh, J, — The Story of Scotland. Putnam. 
McManus, B. — Our Little Scotch Cousin. Page. 
*Marshall, H. E. — Scotland's Story. Stokes. 
*McDoNALD AND Dalrtmple. — Doudld in Scotland. Lit- 
tle, Brown. 
Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 
10. Scotland. Ballads, legends, history — accounts 
by various authors. 



Servia 
*Mijatovich, E. — Serbian Fadry Tules. Robert Mc- 

Bride. 
*Petbovic, M. — Hero Tales and Legends of tfie Serbians. 

Harrap. 
*WiNSL0w, C. V. — Our Little Servian Cousin. Page. 



Spain 

*Bates, K. L. — In Sunny Spain. Dutton. 
*BoNNER, J. — A Child's History of Spain. Harper. 
*Browne, E. a. — Peeps at Many Lands — Spain. Mac- 
millan. 
Hale, E. B. — The Story of Spain. Putnam. 
HiGGiN, L. — Spanish Life in Town and Country. Put- 
nam. Land and people, types and traits, amuse- 
ments, religion, education, arts, commerce, and 
agriculture. 
Hume, M. A. S. — The Story of Modern Spain. Putnam. 
*McDoN.ALD and Dalrymple. — Josef a in Spain. Little, 

Brown. 
*Nixon-Roulet, M. F. — Our Little Spanish Cousin. 

Page. 
*Segovia, G. — The Spanish Fairy Book. Stokes. 
Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 
5: Spain. 



240 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Sweden 
*CoBURN, C. M. — Our Little Swedish Cousin. Page, 
Heiden, O. G. Von.; — Swedish Life in Town and Coun- 
. try. Putnam. 
•LiDDLE, W. — Peeps at Many Lands — Sweden. Mae- 

millan. 
*McDoNALD AND Dalrymple. — Gerda in Sweden. Little, 

Brown, 
•Nyblom, H. — Jolly Calle and Other Swedish Fairy 
Tales. Dutton. 
Stefansson, J. — Denmark and Sweden with Iceland and 

Finland. Putnam. 
Tappan, E, M, — The World's Story. Houghton, Vol, 
8 : Sweden. History, folk-lore. Accounts by various 
authors. 

Switzerland 
*FiNNEMORE, J. — Peeps at Many Lands — Switzerland. 

Macmillan. 
•Froelicher, F. — Swiss Stories and Legends. Mac- 
millan. 
*6uERBER, H. A. — Legends of Suntzerland. Dodd, Mead. 
Hug AND Stead. — The Story of Switzerland. Putnam. 
*Spyri, J. — Heidi. (Many editions.) 
Story, A. T. — Swiss Life in Town and Country. Put- 
nam. Switzerland and the Swiss struggle with 
nature, education, industry, life and work in the 
Alps; Swiss women and homes; children, working- 
men's society and co-operation; fetes and festivals, 
etc. Illustrated. 
Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 
7: Switzerland — History and social life — accounts 
by various authors. 
*Wade, M. H. — Our Little Svnss Cousin. Page. 

Turkey 

Garnett, L. M, J. — The Women of Turkey and Their 
Folk-Lore. David Nutt. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 241 

Garnett, L. M. J. — Home Life in Tunkey. Macmillan. 

Social life, religious beliefs, institutions, domestic 

life. 
Garnett, L. M. J. — TurMsh Life in Toivn and Country. 

Putnam. Inhabitants and institutions, dwellings, 

home life, religion, education, etc. 
Lane-Poole, S. — The Story of Turkey. Putnam. 
Tappan, E. M.—TJie World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 

6: Turkey. History, Social life, stories, etc. ac- 
counts by various authors. 
*Van Millingen, J. R. — Peeps at Many Lands — Turkey ^ 

Macmillan. 
*Wade, M. H. — Our Little Turkish Cousin. Page. 

Wales 
*Edward, 0. M. — The Story of Wales. Putnam. 
Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 
10: Wales. Legends, life, etc. 
*Wilmot-Buxton, E. M. — Peeps at Many Lands — Wales. 
Macmillan. 

Asia 

General 

* Allen, N. B. — Geographical and Industrial Studies — 
Asia. Ginn. 

*Carpenter, F. G. — Geographical Reader — Asia. Ameri- 
can Book Co. 

*Chamberlain, J. F. — The Continents and Their People 
— Asia. Macmillan. 
CoBBOLD, R. P. — Innermost Asia. Scribner. 

*Herbertson, A. J. — Asia. Macmillan. 

*Huntington, E. Asia. Rand McNally. Geographic 
Reader. 

*MiLLER, H. — Little People of Asia. Button. Short 
accounts of Turkish, Persian, Hindu, Siamese 
babies. Illustrated. 

*Redway, J. W. — All Around Asia. Scribner. 

*Smith, M. C. — Life in Asia. Silver. 

*WiNSL0w, I. 0. — Distant Countries. Heath. 



S42 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Afghanistan 

Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 

2. Afghanistan. 

Arahia 

*Mansfield, B. — Our Little Arabian Cousin. Page. 
Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 

3. Arabia. 

Armenia 

*ScHNAPPS, C. H. — Archag, the Little Armenian. Button. 
*Wade, M. H. — Our Little Arrrtenian Cousin. Page. 

Assyria 

*Baikie, J. — Peeps at Many Lands — Ancient Assyria. 
Macmillan. 
Ragozin, Z. a. — Story of Assyria. Putnam. 

Burma 

*Kelly, R. T. — Peeps at Many Lands — Burma. Mac- 
millan. 
Ceylon 

*Clark, a. — Peeps at Many Lands — Ceylon. Macmillan. 

China 

Bard, E. — Chinese Life in Town and Country. Putnam. 
*Bryson, M. I. — Child Life in Chinese Homes. American 
Book Co. Chinese baby, home and friends, school 
and play festivals, and holidays. Illustrated. 
*Davis, M. H. and Chow-Leung. — Chinese Fables and 
Folk Stories. American Book Co. 
Douglas, R. K. — The Story of China. Putnam. 
Gripfis, W. E. — China's Story. Houghton. 
*Headland, I. T. — Our Little Chinese Cousin. Page. 
^Headland, I. T. — The Chinese Boy and Girl. Revell. 
Contents : nursery and its rhymes, child-life, games, 
toys, stories told children. Illustrated. 
Holcolmb, C. — The Real Chinaman. Dodd, Mead. Gov- 
ernment, home life, social life, language, religion, 
superstitions, etiquette, etc. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 243 

* Johnston, L. E. — Peeps at Many Lands — CJiina. Mac- 
millan. 

*Lee, Yan Phou. — When I was a Boy in China. Lothrop. 
Written by a Chinese boy. 

*PiTMAN, N. H. — Chinese Fairy Stories. Crowell. 
Ross, E. A. — The Changing Chinese. Century. Indus- 
trial future, women, race, characteristics, appear- 
ance, education, etc. 
Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. I, 
China. History, social customs, literature. Ac- 
counts taken from various authors. 

'*Van Bergen, R. — Story of China. American Book Co. 
Descriptive and partly historical. 

India 

CoMPTON, H. — Indian Life in Town and Country. Put- 
nam. India as it is. Caste, manners, and customs, 
the Indian at home, bungalow life, out-of-door life. 
Illustrated. 
*FiNNEMORE, J.— Peeps at Many Lands — India. Mac- 
millan. Village life, homes in the city, homes of the 
wild folk. Illustrated in color. 
*Griswold, F. — Hindu Fairy Tales. Lothrop. 
■ *KoLMAN, J. H. — Children of India. Revell. 
*McDonald AND Dalrymple. — Chandra in India. Little, 
Brown. 
McManus, B. — Our*Little Hindu Cousin. Page. 
*Marshall, H. E. — India's Story Told to Boys and Girls, 

Stokes. 
*Pratt-Chadwick, M. L. — Stories of India. Educational 
Publishing Co. 
Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 
2 India. History, folk-lore, social life — accounts 
taken from various authors. 
*'Wade, M. H. — Twin Travelers in India. Stokes. 

Japan 

Angus, D. C. — Japan the Eastern Wonderlarid. Cas- 
sell. Fairs and festivals, ranks and religions, court 
and camp, the New Japan, etc. 



244 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

*Ayrton, M. — Child Life in Japan. Heath. Written 

from actual observation of Japanese life. 
*Brain, B. M. — All About Japan. Kevell. Stories of 

the Sunrise Land told for Little Folks. 
Brown, C. C. — Children of Japan. Eevell. Describes 
Japanese children in their homes and at school, 
their games, festivals, and superstitions. 
Fenollosa, M. M. — Blossoms from a Japanese Garden. 

Stokes. 
*FiNNEMORE, J. — Peeps at Many Lands — Japan. Mac- 

millan. 
*Campbell, H. M. — The Story of Little Metsu, the 

Japanese Boy. Educational Pub. Co. 
*Gaines, R. — Treasure Flower — a Child of Japan. Dut- 
ton. 
' *Grippis, W. E. — Japan, In History, Folk-Lore, and Art. 
Houghton. For young people. Contents: Origin 
of the arts, letters, writing, social life, ideals, and 
symbols, signs and omens, etc. 
Hearn, Lafcadio. — Japanese Fairy Tales. Boni and 

Liveright. 
Kelman, J. H. — Children of Japan. Revell. 
Knox, G. "W. — Japanese Life in Totvn and Country. 

Putnam. 
Lloyd, A. — Every-Day in Japan. Cassell. 
*McDonald and Dalrymple. — Ume San in Japan. 
Little, Brown. 
Murray, D. — The Story of Japan. Putnam. 
*OzAKi, Y. T. — The Japanese Fairy Book. Dutton. 
*Shioya, S. — When I Was a Boy in Japan. Lothrop. 
Description of Japanese child life by a Japanese. 
Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. I. 
Japan. History, literature — accounts taken from 
various authors, 
*Van Bergen, R. — The Story of Japan. American Book 

Co. A brief and interesting history of Japan. 
*"Wade, M. H, — Our Little Japanese Cousin. Page. 
*Williston, T. p. — Japanese Fairy Tales. Rand. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 245 

Java 

HiGGiNSON, S. J. — Java, the Pearl of the East. Hough- 
ton. 
*SCHELTEMA, J. F. — Peeps at Many Lands — Java. Mac- 
millan. 

Kashmir 
*Bruce, F. M. J. — Peeps at Many Lands — Kashmir. 
Macmillan, 

Korea 

*CouLSON, J, D. — Peeps at Many Lands — Korea. Mac- 
millan. 
Gale, J. S. — Korean Sketches. Revell. The Coolie, the 

Korean mind, the Korean gentleman, etc. 
*PiKE, H, L. M. — Our Little Korean Cousin. Page. 

Mesopotamia 

Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 2, 
Mesopotamia. 

Palestine 

*FiNNEMORE, J. — Peeps at Many Lands — The Holy Land. 
*GuERBER, H. — Story of the Chosen People. American 
Book Co. 
HosMER, J. K. — The Story of the Jews. Putnam. 
*Kaleel, M. J. — When I Was a Boy in Palestine. Loth- 
rop. 
Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 
2. Palestine. 

Persia 

Benjamin, S. G. W. — Story of Persia. Putnam. 
*Olcott, F. J. — Tales of the Persian Genii. Houghton. 
*Shedd, B. C. — Our Little Persian Cousin. Page. 
Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 
2. Persia. History, social customs, folk-lore, ac- 
counts taken from various authors. 



246 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

Siam 

Tappan, E. M..—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 

2. Siam. 
Taylor, Bayard. — Siam, the Land of the White Ele- 
phant. Scribner. Ancient and modern Siam. 
*Wade, M. H. — Our Little Siamese Cousin. Page. 
*youNG, E. — Peeps at Many Lands — Siam. Macmillan. 

Siheria 

*Kennan, G. — Tent Life in Siberia. Putnam. The nar- 
rative of two years' life in Northern Siberia. 
Tappan, E. M..—The World's Story. Houghton, Vol. 6. 
Eussia. 

Africa 

Badlam, a. B. — Views in Africa. Silver, Burdette. 
*Carpenter, F. G. — Geographical Reader — Africa. 

American Book Co. 
*Chamberlain, J. F. — The Continents and Their People 

— Africa. Macmillan. 
Du Chaillu, Paul. — The Country of the Dwarfs. Har- 
per. Strange experiences among the African 
pigmies 
Du Chaillu, Paul. — In African Forest and Jungle. 
Scribner. Adventures with wild animals and 
savage tribes. 
Du Chaillu, Paul. — Wild Life under the Equator. 
Harper. About animals and wild tribes of men in 
Equatorial Africa. 
*Herbbrtson, a. J. — Africa. Macmillan. 
Honey, J. A. — South-African Folk Tales. Baker. 
,*KiDD, D. — Peeps at Many Lands — South Africa. Mac- 
millan. 
*Macnair, J. H. — Animal Tales from Africa. Stokes. 
*MuLLER, M. — Story of Akimakoo, an African Boy. 
Flanagan. Entertaining story of the life of an 
African lad. Give an account of the hunting 
of crocodiles and elephants — life in camp, en- 
counter with cannibals. 



BIBIJOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 247 

Tappan, E. M. — TJie World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 3. 
Africa. 

Theal, G. W. — The Story of South Africa. Putnam. 
*Wade, M. H. B. — Our Little African Cousin. Page. 
*WiNSLOW, I. 0. — Distant Countries. Heath. 

Egypt 

*Baikie, J. — Peeps at Many Lands — Ancient Egypt. 

Macmillan. 
*Best, S. M. — Egypt and Her Neighbors. Macmillan. 
Erman, a. — Life in Ancient Egypt. Macmillan. 
GossE, A. B. — The Civilization of Ancient Egypt. 
Jack. Education, professions and occupations, 
amusements, architecture, sculpture, laws, religion, 
literature. Illustrated. 
*Kellt, R. T. — Peeps at Many Lands— Egypt. Mac- 
millan. Account of the country, the people and the 
life. Illustrated. 
McManus, B. — Our Little Egyptian Cousin. Page. 
*McDoNALD AND Dalrymple. — Hossun in Egypt. Little, 
Brown. 
Rawlinson and Gilman. — The Story of Ancient Egypt. 

Putnam. 
*Starr, L. B. — Mustafa, the Egyptian Boy. Flanagan, 
Account of every-day life around Cairo and com- 
parison with the life of Ancient Egypt. 
Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 3. 
Egypt. History, folk-lore, accounts taken from 
various authors. 

Australia 

BuLEY, E. C— Australian Life in Town and Country. 

Putnam. 
*Carpenter, F. G. — Geographical Reader — Australia. 

American Book Co. 
*Chamberlain, J. F.- — The Continents and Their People 

— Oceania. Macmillan. 
*Fo'x, F. — Peeps at Many Lands — Australia. Macmillan, 



THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL 

*Herbertson, a. J. — Australia and Oceania. Macinillan. 

*Kellogg, E. — Australasia and tJie Islands of the Sea. 
Silver, Burdette. 

*Knox, T. W. — Boy Travelers in Australasia. Harper. 

*NixON-RouLET, M. F. — Our Little Australian Cousin. 
Page. 

*Chadwick-Pratt, M. — Stories of Australasia. Educa- 
tional Pub. Co, 
Tregarthen, G. — The Story of Australasia. Putnam. 



END 



